Chinese Beliefs
A short synopsis of the traditional religions and worship of China.
China’s Folk Religion
The major faith of China is not a specific religion, but instead a blend of Taoist, Confucian, Buddhist, and folk worship. Its three major philosophies do not exclude each other, though they have points of disagreement. As a result, they have coexisted for thousands of years alongside older, local spiritual beliefs. Taoism, for example, was born out of ancient Chinese shamanism. This practice worships Tian, or Heaven, as both a supreme deity and an impersonal force, the source of all natural harmony in the world. A secondary figure, Di, represents earthly power in balance with Heaven. When emperors claimed a Mandate of Heaven, they appealed to the authority of Tian. By acting in accordance with divine law, they could expect a peaceful and prosperous reign.
Among the common people, folk religion traditionally sought good harvests, contented ancestors, and the protection of the family. Shamans, or wu, brought the rains, healed the sick, exorcised harmful spirits, interpreted dreams, told the future, and made offerings to spirits and gods. The earliest known writings of China are found inscribed on bones used for divination. The practice has existed for more than 3,000 years and continues to the present day. Wu tend to be women. Their male equivalents are known as xi. The practice of geomancy, including feng shui, stems from their work with natural energies.
Chinese Taoism, Confucianism, and Buddhism
The three ancient, organized faiths of China are Taoism, Confucianism, and Buddhism. All three are thought to have emerged within a century or so of 500 BCE. The foundation of Taoism from its folk roots is attributed to the sage Laozi, a possibly mythic contemporary of Confucius. The faith recognizes many deities living in harmony with the Dao, or the path of natural order and existence. The duality of yin, tranquility, and yang, movement, form the Taiji, the “supreme ultimate,” symbolized by the well known ‘yin-yang’ symbol. Three Pure Ones, a trio of deities, assisted with the ordering of the universe. Laozi is worshipped as a manifestation of one of these gods.
Confucius (551-479 BCE) is more easily identified as a historical figure. Where Taoism focuses on living without striving, Confucianism is concerned with the state, society, and its people. Confucius emphasized the need for filial piety, ancestral worship, and a strong social hierarchy ruled by virtuous leaders. His teachings gained gradual acceptance during the Han dynasty as the preferred philosophy of Imperial China. Neo-Confucianism, a response to Buddhism and Taoism, emerged during the Tang dynasty. At this time, the empire began holding state exams to test its civil servants.
Buddhism, meanwhile, was founded in India by Siddhartha Gautama, or the Gautama Buddha. The religion arrived in China via the Silk Road during the Han dynasty. Buddhism’s message of non-attachment and compassion blended well with the non-action, or wu wei, espoused by Taoism. The two faiths are often still practiced together in China today. Both were less tolerated by Neo-Confucianists, who saw Buddhism in particular as a harmful influence on society.
Secret Societies in Chinese History
While Confucianism imposed order on society, both Buddhism and Taoism held a more complicated political role in China. A number of secret societies formed around the faiths, especially during periods of religious suppression. They tended to sow social unrest, including spurring peasant revolts. A Taoist sect, for example, led the Yellow Turban Rebellion that brought the Han dynasty to its knees.
Another major group, the White Lotus Society, was founded while the Mongol Empire controlled much of modern China. It followed Buddhist and Manichaean prophecies and practiced relative equality between the genders, including the use of female military commanders. Through the 13th and 14th centuries, it worked to erode the power of the Mongol Yuan dynasty from within. The White Lotus emerged again in the 18th century to combat the Manchu-led Qing dynasty. Its efforts continued into the early 20th century, at which point the Qing dynasty collapsed. Some of these secret societies eventually shifted into organized crime.
Other Religions in China
These three faiths, along with shamanism, have played the largest roles in China’s religious history, but they always faced pressure from abroad. Many forms of worship traveled to the country along the trade routes of the Silk Road. In the 9th century, the Tang dynasty worked to suppress Buddhism, Nestorian Christianity, Manichaeism, and Zoroastrianism. The three latter religions had moved eastward to escape persecution, particularly after the Arab conquest of Iran. The city of Kaifeng, once a stop along the Silk Road, has been home to a minority Jewish population for nearly 1,000 years.
The Mongol Yuan dynasty was notable for its religious tolerance and diversity in the 14th century. It encouraged foreign trade, particularly with the Muslim Ilkhanate, and hosted formal religious debates between scholars. This led to a sizable Islamic population within China. Christian missionaries, most notably the Jesuits, also won converts from the 16th century on. The ruling elite of the Qing dynasty favored Tibetan Buddhism and permitted the spread of Protestant Christianity. The Taiping Rebellion of 1850 to 1864, a massive civil war against the Qing, was led by Hong Xiuquan, who claimed to be a brother of Jesus Christ. The Boxer Rebellion, fought between 1899 and 1901, was in part a popular backlash against Christianity and foreign influence.
Modern Chinese Worship
The Communist Party of China, for the most part, has discouraged but tolerated religious practice within the country. Buddhism, Taoism, Islam, Catholicism, and Protestantism are all officially recognized by the government. Notable exceptions include minority religions in politically sensitive areas, such as Tibetan Buddhism or Uighur Islam. Christian worshippers may also participate in underground churches separate from officially sanctioned branches. According to the CIA World Factbook, China’s current religious demographics are as follows:
Unaffiliated 52.2%
Folk religion 21.9%
Buddhist 18.2%
Christian 5.1%
Muslim 1.8%
Hindu < 0.1%,
Jewish < 0.1%,
Other 0.7% (includes Taoist)
References
Albert, Eleanor. “Religion in China.” Council on Foreign Relations, Council on Foreign Relations, 15 Mar. 2018, www.cfr.org/backgrounder/religion-china.
Gernet, Jacques. A History of Chinese Civilization. Cambridge University Press. 1996.
Gunde, Richard. Culture and Customs of China. Greenwood Publishing. 2002.
Overmyer, Daniel E. Religions of China: The World as a Living System. Waveland Press. 1998.
“The World Factbook: China.” Central Intelligence Agency, Central Intelligence Agency, 12 July 2018, www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ch.html.
Von Glahn, Richard. An Economic History of China. Cambridge University Press. 2016.
Yang, C.K. Religion in Chinese Society. University of California Press. 1961.
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