Indian Society

Like other elements of Indian culture, the social structures of its people vary from region to region. Historical differences have been heightened by uneven levels of development between the nation’s cities and rural villages. There are, however, common threads uniting much of Indian society, including a love of family and shared religious heritages.

The Hindu Caste System

The most widespread social system of India dates back to its foundations as a civilization. The Vedic period began when a group known as the Aryans migrated into Northern India around 3,500 years ago. They settled among the existing population and implemented a caste system, a social hierarchy inherited along family lines. The caste system recognizes four major classes:

• Brahmin priests and scholars

• Kshatriya warriors and rulers

• Vaishya farmers, craftsmen, and merchants

• Shudra laborers and servants

Additionally, an untouchable class, or dalits, performed the unclean work of each community. They lived apart from other members of society. Tribal people who did not follow this system were also deemed untouchable.

Members of each class typically only married within their caste. Smaller degrees of status existed within each caste as well. These distinctions were determined by time and place. The primary minority religions of India, Buddhism and Jainism, both reject the caste system.

India Under Muslim Rule

The caste system organized Indian villages, kingdoms, and empires for thousands of years. But by the 12th century, Muslim conquerors from Central Asia began carving out their own territories. While Hindus continued to practice their older customs, they were now placed under the authority of Muslim officials and, in many cases, the general Muslim public. One notable exception to this rule occurred during the reign of Akbar I, third emperor of the Mughal Empire. Akbar sought to improve relations between Hindus and Muslims in the 16th century. He expanded access to education and encouraged religious tolerance among all faiths. Despite his efforts, the tensions that formed in this period have persisted to the present day.

Even at the height of its power, the Mughal Empire never exerted full control over its subjects. Rajputs, or Hindu warrior kings, led the resistance against the initial invasions. When that failed, some formed alliances with the Mughals. They maintained authority over their regions, preserving their societies in the process. These vassal Rajputs fought against the Hindu Maratha Empire, which rose in opposition to the Mughals in the 17th century. Other Rajputs, however, remained independent or joined the Marathas in battle. The political situation between India’s competing states was never simple.

Society in British India

This infighting between Hindu and Muslim dynasties came to a halt with the arrival of British economic interests. The East India Company, in competition with France and Portugal, won several important battles that placed it in control of Bengal in the 1750s. Over the next century, British forces overcame both the Marathas and the Mughals to solidify their hold on the Indian subcontinent. By the 1850s, internal rebellions pushed the British Crown to reorganize the region as a colony of the larger British Empire.

The primary motive of the British in India was the efficient production of goods and taxes. Its social policies were aimed at suppressing dissent and enforcing the rule of law. While both Hindus and Muslims were treated as second-class citizens, they were allowed to practice ancestral traditions that did not conflict with British interests. In addition, people of different castes gained access to education, allowing them to move upward in British-dominated society. Parts of the colony were directly administered by British authorities. Others were left to be governed by ‘princely states,’ or semi-autonomous Indian rulers. These princes and their families held positions of respect within the empire and often served in its military.

Beneath this layer of British authority, a nationalist undercurrent was also developing. The Indian National Congress was most influential of these, led by figures like Mohandas K. Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru. Through a series of nonviolent campaigns, the INC spearheaded Indian independence. Their efforts succeeded by 1947, but civil unrest within the diverse population claimed the lives of hundreds of thousands. As the princely states gradually consented to membership in a self-ruling government, whole families uprooted between the divided India and Pakistan.

Modern Indian Society

Modern India is a democratic nation caught between the demands of modern industry and ancient beliefs. A population boom following independence has provided a large and youthful workforce while straining local infrastructure. The caste system is officially illegal but still observed in many areas, to a greater or lesser extent. Urban centers tend to be more accepting of divisive issues like divorce, gender equality, and intermarriage between castes. Significant gaps in wealth, education, and access to opportunity exist between rural and urban areas, as well as within cities. In a society of over a billion people, where regional ties are sometimes more important than national identity, these issues offer few easy answers.

References

Henderson, Carol. Culture and Customs of India. Greenwood Press. 2002.

Hopkins, John C. Structure and Change in Indian Society. Routledge. 2017.

Majumdar, Ramesh Chandra. Ancient India. Motilal Banarsidass. 1977.

Richards, John F. The Mughal Empire. Part 1. Vol. 5. Cambridge University Press. 1995.

Robb, Peter. A History of India. Macmillan International. 2011.

Thapar, Romila. A History of India. Penguin UK. 1990.

“The World Factbook: India.” Central Intelligence Agency, Central Intelligence Agency, 9 Oct. 2018, www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/in.html.

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