Austro-Hungarian Lands and People
Our term "Austria" is a somewhat corrupt Italianised form of the native Oesterreich which, literally translated, means "The Eastern Kingdom."
From: Unknown To: 1899 C.E.
Location: Austria; Hungary
Note: This article has been excerpted from a larger work in the public domain and shared here due to its historical value. It may contain outdated ideas and language that do not reflect TOTA’s opinions and beliefs.
From Austria by Sydney Whitman and J. R. McIlraith, 1899.
Our term "Austria" is a somewhat corrupt Italianised form of the native Oesterreich which, literally translated, means "The Eastern Kingdom." The country came to be so called, because the archduchy of Austria, the nucleus around which the now existing Empire subsequently developed, had that position with respect to the rest of Germany. The present official designation, however, of what is known to us as the Austrian-Hungarian Empire is the Oesterreichisch-Ungarische Monarchie.
Taking the Empire as a whole, it must be described as of the most extensive character. Next to Russia, it is the largest state in respect of superficial area in Europe. Its frontier line has a grand total length of 5,396 miles, and including the occupied lands of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which may fairly be considered as part of the Empire, it has a complete area of about 264,204 square miles.
The Austrian-Hungarian territories may be classified in three divisions: first, the lands of the Austrian Crown, or Cisleithan lands (115,903 square miles); second, the lands of the Hungarian crown, or Transleithan lands (125,039 square miles); and, third, the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina occupied and administered under the Treaty of Berlin of 1878 (23,262 square miles).
The Cisleithan lands include: Bohemia (in the north-west); Austrian Silesia, and Moravia (east of Bohemia); Upper and Lower Austria (south of Bohemia and Moravia); Salzburg, Styria and Carinthia (south of the Austrias); the Tyrol and Vorarlberg (west of Salzburg and Carinthia); Carniola and the Coast Land (south of Carinthia); Dalmatia (along the Adriatic); and Galicia and Bukowina (to the north-east of Hungary and bordering on the Russian Empire).
The Transleithan lands include Hungary (east of the Austrias and Styria), Transylvania, Croatia, Slavonia, and Fiume (south of Hungary and Carniola).
Lastly, Bosnia and Herzegovina are situated south of Slavonia and Croatia and to the east of Dalmatia.
The Empire thus comprised is bounded, on the north, by the kingdom of Saxony and Prussian Silesia, Russian Poland, and Volhynia; on the east, by the Russian provinces of Podolia and Bessarabia, and Rumania; on the south, by Rumania, Servia, Turkey, the Adriatic, and Italy; and on the west, by Switzerland and Bavaria. With the exception of the north-east frontier, the boundaries are of a strong natural character, and, as a whole, the Empire forms a fairly compact mass.
The population, though inferior in density to those of Great Britain and France, reached in 1895 grand total of 44,448,474 souls. The inhabitants of the Cisleithan lands number nearly twenty-five millions, those of the Transleithan lands over eighteen millions, and those of Bosnia and Herzegovina about one and a half millions.
This population is of the most diverse description; in fact, next to the Russian Empire, the Austrian-Hungarian dominions contain a greater variety of peoples than any other country in Europe. Fully one half of the entire population is of Slavonian extraction; then there are nearly eleven millions of Germans, seven and a half millions of Magyars, and three millions of Rumanians; to whom must be added about two millions of Jews and two hundred thousand foreign residents, chiefly Germans and Italians, but including also nearly four thousand British and American subjects.
The distribution of these various elements over the Empire is very important from a political point of view. They are very different, one from the other, in respect of manners, language, religion, and customs, have opposing interests and independent systems of government, and are practically foreign to one another except for the community of the Imperial control. The resulting phenomenon is physical weakness as a whole, together with a difficulty to combine as one nation when threatened by foreign Powers.
Slavs are found all over the Empire, and include Czechs, Slovaks, Poles, Ruthenes, Slovenes, Croatians, Servians, and Bulgarians. The Czechs and Slovaks occupy the greater part of Hungary, Bohemia, and Moravia, and parts of Galicia and Bukowina; the Poles and Ruthenes form the bulk of the population in Galicia; and Slovenes, Croatians, Servians, and Bulgarians are found in considerable numbers in Croatia, Dalmatia, Bosnia, Herzegovina, and Transylvania.
The German element again prevails in parts of Bohemia and Moravia, Silesia, Upper and Lower Austria, part of Styria, Carinthia, Salzburg, part of the Tyrol, Vorarlberg, and parts of Hungary,
Transylvania, Bukowina, and Galicia. The Magyars form the bulk of the population of Hungary and, its southern portion, Transylvania. And lastly, with reference to the Rumanian element, we find Italians in the Tyrol and Coast Land, Rhaeto-Romanes, Friules and Ladmes in Carniola, the Coast Land, the Tyrol, and Carinthia; and Rumanians (or Wallachians) in Transylvania. In truth, a multitude of tribes!
Besides being notable from an ethnographic point of view, the Austrian-Hungarian Empire is exceedingly interesting in its physical features. About one-fourth of its territories might be described as Highland or Alpine, but even in the most mountainous districts there are so many fruitful valleys that only about a tenth part remains uncultivated. Every kind of soil is to be found, and the Austrian provinces are on the average as fertile as those of England or France. They are well watered, too, by the Danube and its tributaries, and, though they occupy so central, a position in Europe, there is ready access by water to the outside world both over the former river and the Elbe, and also from the ports on the Adriatic.
The general result is that, for variety of scenery, this Empire is unsurpassed, some parts, such as Salzburg and its neighbourhood, being simply enchanting. A well-known writer has remarked: "The variety of the scenery, the verdure of the meadows and trees, the depth of the valleys and the altitudes of the mountains, the clearness and grandeur of the rivers and lakes give it (Austria), I think, a decided superiority over Switzerland."
Austria is undoubtedly a beautiful country. Foremost among its beauties stand its mountains and rocks; indeed, the motto which is to be read on the bust of Sigismund von Schrattenbach at the Monchsberg of Salzburg, "Te saxa loquuntur” might well be applied to Austria as a whole. We have sublimely the grand in the snow-clad chain of the Salzburg and Styrian Alps, the picturesque in the weird dolomite columns of the Tyrol, and the beautiful in the valleys and dales with which the heights are interspersed.
All degrees of temperature, too, can be experienced, from the icy cold of Greenland to the mild balmy air of Italy, and it must be his own fault if the inhabitant does not find the locality there to suit his constitutional predilections. The man who is fond of life can indulge in the gayest of experiences in Austria's beautiful capital Vienna, with its architectural splendour, its "Prater," its islands, and its charming environs; whilst one of a more romantic turn can enjoy himself amid glaciers like those of the Grossglockner, passes like that of Lueg, lakes like the Hallstattersee, valleys like those of the Tyrol and the Danube, subterranean wonders like the cave of Adelsberg, or ancient remains like those of the Romans at Pola and Spalato, or of the feudal period at Riegersburg. On leaving scenes like these, one cannot help recalling to mind those lines of our poet Campbell—
“Adieu, the woods and water's side, Imperial Danube's rich domain!
Adieu the grotto, wild and wide. The rocks abrupt, and grassy plain!"
The Austrian Alps are so extensive that to specify all their ramifications would be a fruitless task. Proceeding northwards, however, the chief summits are: the Orteler Spitze (the loftiest of all, being 12,814 feet), Konigspitze, Stilfser and Wormser Joch in the Rhaetian Alps, Monte Antelao, Oetzthaler Waldspitz, Weisskugel, Sollstein, Grossglockner, Venediger, Wiesbachhorn, Schneeberg, Dachstein, Thorstein, and Burkenkogel. Of a lesser height are the several mountain ranges of Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia, chief among which are the Bohmerwald
(Kubani), the Fichtelgebirge, the Erzgebirge (Keilberg), the Riesengebirge and the Sudetes, none of which reach the snow line. Lastly, we have the Carpathians, starting about Pressburg on the Danube, making a gigantic curve round Hungary and Transylvania, and terminating near Orsova on the Lower Danube. The chief summits of this last range are Babia Gora, the Lomnitzer Spitze, Tatra, Pietrozza, Kuhhorn, and Negri. The population of these mountain heights is naturally sparse, but they abound in chamois, eagles, blackgame, &c
The plains of the Austrian-Hungarian Empire are very extensive, covering nearly one-fifth of the whole superficies. The principal are the Great Hungarian Plain (1,700 square miles); the Little Hungarian Plain (160 square miles); the Plain of Lower Austria, on either side of the Danube; the Welser Heath, in Upper Austria; the Klagenfurter Plain, in Carinthia; and the Galician Plain.
The chief river is the Danube, flowing from the west towards the south-east. It has many tributaries, several of them navigable. Then there is the Dniester, which rises in the Carpathians and runs for a considerable part of its course through Austrian territory, the Weichsel, the Wisloka, the Sau, the Bug, the Oder, the Elbe (with several tributaries), the Po, and the Etsch.
There are also numerous lakes, though mostly of small size. We may mention the Platten, Neusiedler, Zirknitzer, Mond, Traun, Atter, Hallstatter, Zeller, Waller, Worthwaters, and also the Bodensee, the Weissensee, and the Ossiakh See. The Konigsee, with its water of deepest blue, almost black in the shadows of the forest-clad hills around, though just across the border, is a favourite excursion from Salzburg, and the other lakes mentioned partake largely of the same characteristics.
Noteworthy are the mineral springs and mineral products of Austria, and the student of geology can find no happier hunting-ground. The tertiary formation prevails, crystalline and unstratified rocks being chiefly met with in the west, and alluvial and igneous rocks in the east. A large part of Hungary must, undoubtedly, have been formed under water, as the quantities of fossil sea shells testify. The chalk of the Carpathians and the limestone of the western portion of the Empire must also have a subaqueous history ascribed to them.
As for minerals, with the exception, perhaps, of platinum, all the useful metals are found. Thus we hear of gold, silver, iron, copper, lead, tin, antimony, arsenic, quicksilver, nickel, bismuth, manganese, &c. Coal occurs in almost every province, and of precious stones there are the Bohemian carbuncle, the Hungarian opal, chalcedony, emerald, ruby, jasper, topaz, amethyst, &c.
Marble is very common, also salt, vitriol, alum, saltpetre, soda, &c. Salt is found, not as with us in masses, but in veins intermingled with material of a limestone nature. Mines for working such deposits are found in Styria, Salzburg, the Tyrol, and Transylvania. But the mineral springs form the great distinguishing feature of the Empire. Of these there are at least fifteen hundred. Most occur in Bohemia and Hungary, but they are found all over. The most celebrated, perhaps, are those of Gastein, in Salzburg (frequented by the reigning Emperor); Karlsbad (with its seven powerful springs), Marienbad, Franzenbrunn, Sedlitz, and Teplitz, in Bohemia; and Bartfeld and Ofen, in Hungary.
With respect to natural products, the forests ought first to be mentioned, these occupying as much as one-third of the whole producing area. One half of the forest land is in Hungary. In the more remote forests trees have been known to attain huge dimensions, especially larches, firs, and Siberian pines. The oak, ash, beech, and elm also flourish, and, besides the fig, olive, almond, orange, lemon, and pomegranate, all our more usual fruit trees are grown. There are many vineyards, especially in the south, and the Austrian-Hungarian Empire ranks for its wines immediately after France, Italy, and Spain, though, owing to its inland position, they are not so well known as they deserve to be. All our agricultural crops are sown, also rice and maize, and among other productions are potatoes, turnips, beet, beans, peas, tobacco, hemp, flax, and hops.
Among the animals of the country are wild deer, chamois, wild swine, lynxes, foxes, and a species of bear. Chamois hunting in the treibjagd style is a favourite amusement, and the peasants will often collect in number and drive forty or fifty of these animals towards a ring of sportsmen, who shoot them as they come up. There is a native type of horse of small size, and most of our domestic animals are to be seen, ducks and geese being plentiful. Wild birds are more plentiful here than in any other European country, among them being bustards, wild geese and ducks, blackcock, grouse, widgeon, &c. Blackcock are specially abundant in the Alpine districts, and the Styrian Jager's hat with the feathers of this bird is almost national.
In the matter of industries the Austrian-Hungarian Empire has made great progress in recent times. All the metals above mentioned are manufactured into goods; so also are linen, cotton, wool, and silk. In Bohemia, too, the manufacture of glass and porcelain is carried out with special skill. There are a great many brandy distilleries in the Empire, and there are also some tobacco manufactories, the latter being practically monopolised by the Government. Shipbuilding is carried on extensively on the Coast Land and Dalmatia, and the forestry and salt industries also employ large numbers of the population. The last mentioned are carried on in ways peculiar to the country. As there are not always streams convenient to float the timber along, the inhabitants construct, as it were, railways (riesen) of smooth fir-tree trunks down which they slide the logs as they are hewn to some suitable stream, these railways being sometimes of extraordinary length. So, too, the native system of salt mining is often peculiar; pits being sunk into the limestone beds containing the salt, a mountain stream being introduced thereto, the water of which dissolves the materials, and after a time becomes saturated with the salt, and the brine being finally run off and treated by boiling.
Roads are fairly good, and the construction of railways proceeds apace. The years 1816-25 are notable for the laying down of the most elevated roads in Europe, those of the pass of Stelvio and the Stilserjoch, these being intended both to serve for military purposes and to improve the commercial communication with Italy. Of railways there were, in 1893, 32,221 kilometres open, and more under construction. Inland communication by means of canals has also largely advanced. Lastly, the postal and telegraph systems are equal to those of any other European country.
The present constitution of the Austrian-Hungarian Empire may be said to date from June 8, 1867, when the Emperor Francis Joseph I. of Austria (succeeded December 2, 1848) was crowned Apostolic King of Hungary at Ofen. Since that time there have been to all intents and purposes two monarchies, a Germanic one and a Hungarian one, each division having its own parliament, ministers, and administration, and being mutually related only through the Imperial head and the common army, navy, and financial, diplomatic, postal, and telegraphic services.
The Germanic or Austrian Parliament is called the Reichsrath or Council of the Realm, and consists of two houses, an upper, or Herrenhaus, of 245 members, composed of 21 princes of the Imperial family, 68 hereditary nobles, 17 archbishops and bishops, and 139 other members selected by the Emperor on the ground of distinction; and a lower, or Abgeordnetenhaus, of 425 members elected, for the most part, by the popular vote of the seventeen provinces of Austria. Lower Austria is represented by 46 members. Upper Austria by 20, Salzburg by 6, Styria by 27, Carinthia by 10, Carniola by 11, Trieste by 5, Gorz and Gradisca by 5, Istria by 5, the Tyrol by 21, Vorarlberg by 4, Bohemia by 110, Moravia by 43, Silesia by 12, Galicia by 78, Bukowina by 11, and Dalmatia by 11.
Politically speaking, the constitution of the latter house of representatives is very important, and, as showing the number and diversity of the elements composing it, we may mention that at the General Election of 1891 there were returned 110 German Liberals, 16 National Germans, 15 Anti-Semites, 57 Poles, 8 Ruthenians, 36 Young Czechs, 10 Old Czechs, 3 Independent Czechs, 8 Left Centres, 31 Clericals, 23 Slavonians and Serbo Croats, 18 Bohemian Feudal Conservatives, 5 of the Moravian Central party, 9 Italians, 2 Rumanians, and 2 German Conservatives; while at the General Election of 1896 still more diverse elements were returned.
The Abgeordneten-haus endures for six years and members are paid ten florins for each day's attendance, besides an allowance for travelling expenses. The elective franchise is now a fairly popular one. Before 1896 the Lower House consisted of 353 members, but, by the Parliamentary Reform Bill passed in that year, 72 additional members were added to be elected by all male adults in the Realm, other than domestic servants, resident for six months in the same house.
Five and a-half million new electors received the franchise by that Act. In Hungary there are also two houses, the Upper, or Magnatentafel and the Lower, or Repraesentantentafel._ _The Crown in the case of both divisions is hereditary in the Habsburg-Lothringen dynasty, passing by right of primogeniture to males first, whom failing to females. The monarch must, however, be a member of the Roman Catholic Church. In the matters above mentioned, which are common to the two monarchies, the Emperor is assisted by ministers representing the different departments and two annually elected bodies called _Delegationen, which meet at Vienna and Buda-Pesth alternately, and are comprised of 60 members each, one-third being sent by the upper houses and two-thirds by the lower houses. There are also provincial diets for the administration of local affairs composed of representatives of the ecclesiastical, university, landowning, citizen, commercial, and rural classes who hold office for six years, and communal councils to regulate parish matters, which, speaking generally, sit for three years.
In the matter of religion there is full liberty of conscience, but Roman Catholicism is the State system of worship. Next in importance comes the Greek Church, and Calvinists and Lutherans are also a pretty numerous body. Then there are Jews, and in Bosnia and Herzegovina Mohammedans.
Education is very widespread, and the Government of Austria has paid earnest attention to Its promotion. There are in Austria eight Universities—at Vienna, Prague (2), Graz, Cracow, Lemberg, Innsbruck, and Czernowitz; and in Hungary three—at Buda-Pesth, Klausenburg, and Agram. Then there are gymnasia or preparatory schools for the Universities (176 in Austria), realschulen or preparatory schools for technical education (76 in Austria), over 2000 technical schools and special institutes for such subjects as mining, agriculture, art, &c., and lastly, the elementary or national schools, attendance at which is compulsory on every child of the age of six years.
Justice is administered by (1) the Supreme Court of Justice and Court of Cassation in Vienna (Oberste Gerichte and Kassations hof); (2) the Higher Provincial Courts, or Oberlandesgerichte (Courts of Appeal); (3) the Provincial and District Courts (Landes una Kreisgerichte); to which may be added the Jury Courts (Geschworenengerichte); and (4) the County Courts (Bezirksgerichte). The last two classes are courts of first instance.
Such then are the leading features at the present day of the Austrian-Hungarian Empire as a whole. Let it be our task now to lay before our readers the story of how this advanced and notable position has been won, so far as the Austrian portion of that Empire is concerned.
Whitman, Sydney, and J. R. McIlraith. Austria. G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1899.
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