Indian Beliefs

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Hinduism in India

The majority faith of India is Hinduism, the third largest religion practiced in the world today. Unlike most other major religions, Hinduism has no known founder. It instead developed over thousands of years, built on the philosophies and indigenous worship of older Indian civilizations. Its direct predecessor, the faith of the Vedic period, gave rise to the sacred Veda texts, as well as later interpretations of them. From these roots, Hinduism spread among many cultures until taking recognizable form in the medieval era. Its various schools have been alternately described as part of a polytheist, monotheist, and monist faith.

Hinduism recognizes a divine unity underlying all of reality, or Brahman. All aspects of nature and the human experience are expressions of Brahman. Additionally, every living thing possesses an innermost Self or soul, Ātman. The spiritual practice of Hinduism involves exploring this concept of Self and the more fleeting thoughts and personality that mask it. Through personal development, adherents work to understand the collective nature of Ātman and its ultimate unity with Brahman. After death, the soul is born again. Its state in the next life is determined by the deeds and fulfillment of its past, or karma. Several orthodox schools exist within Hinduism, each approaching these concepts from different perspectives.

Because this journey begins within the individual, Hinduism tolerates a wide variety of worship. The many deities associated with the faith are all dynamic aspects of Brahman. Of these, the three highest are Brahma, the Creator; Vishnu, the Preserver; and Shiva, the Destroyer. Other popular deities include Ganesh, the remover of obstacles; Kartikeya, the warrior philosopher; Shakti, the source of creative power; and her aspect, Parvati, the mother goddess. Practicing Hindus typically respect all of these aspects but may favor certain gods over others. This recognition of the divine in all life encourages many Hindus to adopt vegetarianism and pacifism. Public worship and festivals are often paired with private practices like meditation and yoga.

Jainism

Hinduism was not the only faith born out of the Vedic period. The same philosophies studied by priests and ascetics also gave rise to Jainism and Buddhism. Jainism traces its current teachings to Mahavira, a sage of the 6th century BCE. Mahavira, however, was the 24th spiritual teacher in this tradition. After renouncing his wealthy life and status, Mahavira sought an answer to the problem of suffering and reincarnation. He at last attained supreme knowledge and, upon death, permanent non-attachment.

Jains believe that karma obscures the supreme knowledge of the soul, forcing it into a reincarnation cycle marked by suffering and death. By cleansing the soul, Jains seek to break free of this cycle. They do so through five basic tenets: nonviolence, honesty, non-stealing, chastity, and non-attachment. The principle of nonviolence in particular governs the life of many Jains. Because each soul is as valuable as the next, even insects are worth protecting. The extent to which the faithful practice nonviolence is largely a personal choice. Most Jains are vegetarian, but they may still run businesses, raise families, drive cars, and participate in sports. Enlightenment is one goal in life, but it is not assumed.

Buddhism

Like Jainism, Buddhism was founded on Vedic philosophies in the 6th or 5th century BCE. Its founder, Siddhartha Gautama, was a prince of the warrior caste, who gave up his throne to search for the end of suffering. He reached enlightenment after years of asceticism, study, and meditation and began collecting students and followers. As the Gautama Buddha, he preached a “middle way,” a noble eightfold path to nirvana and the end of the reincarnation cycle. He rejected the caste system of the Vedic religion and later Hinduism, including embracing untouchables. The Gautama Buddha did not claim to be a god, and Buddhism recognizes him as one in a long line of enlightened teachers. Its modern adherents may treat his teachings as worship or secular philosophy.

Buddhism quickly gained traction in ancient India, particularly during the reign of the Mauryan Empire’s Ahsoka. Ahsoka, according to legend, began his rule as a conquering warlord before coming to regret the destruction he had caused. He converted to Buddhism and encouraged its spread. The religion grew alongside Hinduism and Jainism in relative harmony. It spread outward through trade networks and monasteries, splitting between the major branches of Theravada and Mahayana Buddhism. By the medieval era, however, Islamic invasions would gradually erode its presence in its home region. It now represents less than 2 percent of India’s population.

Islam in India

The fertile river plains of Northern India have always proved attractive to outside invaders. By the 11th and 12th centuries CE, the major powers bordering India were Islamic states governed by Turkic, Afghani, Persian, and Mongolian peoples. In the 8th century, the Umayyad dynasty had advanced to the northwest corner of India. Prior to their conquests, the subcontinent was already familiar to Muslim traders, who traveled by both land and sea.

As the religion of new rulers spread among the common people, conversions tended to take place among the lower castes. Islam does not recognize a caste system, allowing greater social mobility among its adherents. This trait, which drove earlier Buddhist conversions, proved popular among the poorer classes. Sufism in particular, with its emphasis on peace and learning, gained many converts in India. Islamic leaders in India tended to practice religious tolerance, though Muslims were given general preference in society.

After centuries of coexistence, Indian independence revived political and religious tensions between Muslims and Hindus. Both Hindus and Muslims participated in the independence movement. By 1947, after a series of violent riots, the exiting British chose to partition the former colony into two separate nations: India and Pakistan. Pakistan was intended to be majority Muslim, while India remained mostly Hindu. The conflict generated by the Partition has influenced relations between the two countries to this day.

Sikhism

The final religion founded in India is Sikhism, established in the 15th century by Guru Nanak. Sikhism emerged in the Punjab region, now divided between India and Pakistan. Guru Nanak taught that the differences between Hindus and Muslims, and by extension all religions, are superficial. It recognizes a supreme divine reality that is timeless and formless. People become separated from the divine through worldly concerns, particularly ego, greed, lust, anger, and attachment. Like the other major Indian religions, reincarnation is tied to a soul’s karma. Birth as a human being, one capable of reuniting with the supreme truth, is seen as a divine honor. Men and women are viewed as spiritual equals. Humility, devotion to God, and good works are all encouraged.

Sikhism developed during the period of Islamic rule and faced regular persecution. Many of its gurus were martyred. The last human Sikh guru, Guru Gobind Singh, declared the religion’s holy texts as his successor in 1708, the Guru Granth Sahib. Since that time, Sikhism has become a global religion.

Modern Religion in India

Today, India is a nation of diverse religions with a strong Hindu majority. Tensions between the Hindu and Muslim population persist, made worse by border disputes with Pakistan. Additionally, Hinduism occasionally comes into conflict with the secular government of India, especially over issues like women’s rights. As of 2011, the nation’s religious makeup was estimated at the following:

• Hindu: 79.8%

• Muslim: 14.2%

• Christian: 2.3%

• Sikh: 1.7%

• Other and unspecified: 2%

References

Chakravarti, Sitansu S. Hinduism: A Way of Life. Motilal Banarsidass. 1991.

Gethin, Rupert. The Foundations of Buddhism. Oxford University Press. 1998.

Henderson, Carol. Culture and Customs of India. Greenwood Press. 2002.

Long, Jeffrey D. Jainism: An Introduction. I. B. Tauris. 2013.

Majumdar, Ramesh Chandra. Ancient India. Motilal Banarsidass. 1977.

Pruthi, Raj. Sikhism and Indian Civilization. Discovery Publishing House. 2004.

Richards, John F. The Mughal Empire. Part 1. Vol. 5. Cambridge University Press. 1995.

Robb, Peter. A History of India. Macmillan International. 2011.

Thapar, Romila. A History of India. Penguin UK. 1990.

“The World Factbook: India.” Central Intelligence Agency, Central Intelligence Agency, 9 Oct. 2018, www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/in.html.

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