Egyptian Society

Social Structures of Ancient Egypt

The dynasties of Ancient Egypt ruled over a society that fused state and worship. Pharaohs were not simply kings, but divine beings in their own right. They were tasked with maintaining the goodwill of the gods, who in turn ensured the continuing prosperity of Egypt. When a pharaoh died, he became a god himself. This gave the rulers of Egypt extraordinary power over their subjects. Pharaoh owned most of the land in Egypt and controlled the rest of it. The title passed to an eldest son in most cases, but secondary sons could inherit as well. Marriages between half-siblings were commonly practiced as a way to secure the royal bloodline. Women could assume the throne, but only if there was no suitable male heir.

Beneath the pharaoh, a complex system of officials worked to make his will reality. One or two viziers answered to the pharaoh and managed the branches of government. These oversaw civil projects, managed the pharaoh’s estate, maintained the military, and supported the priesthood. Each branch possessed its own hierarchy of officials down to the local level. Scribes trained for years to gain entry to the government and the opportunities it offered. In this way, the Egyptians administered a large and multicultural society, all bent toward preserving the social order demanded by the gods. Every person, from slave to noble, occupied a role within this system. Continuity within the classes signified a healthy society; the wealthy should remain wealthy, and the poor existed to serve.

Egypt in the Greek and Roman Worlds

Ancient Egypt came to an end following the conquests of Persia, Alexander the Great, and the Roman Empire. The last native Egyptian pharaoh, Nectanebo II, was defeated by Greek and Persian forces in 342 BCE. Alexander the Great then conquered Egypt in 332. He appealed to the Egyptian people by embracing their favor for divine rulers. He claimed to be a son of Zeus and Amun, two associated deities, with the backing of Greek and Egyptian oracles. The Ptolemaic dynasty succeeded Alexander, ruling from the city he founded, Alexandria. The city grew into one of the major centers of the Mediterranean world, a hub of trade and learning. By this time, the Egyptian nobility had been largely replaced by foreigners, a cause of frequent peasant revolts.

The Ptolemaic dynasty is remembered for its blend of classical Greek and Egyptian culture. Its most famous ruler, Cleopatra VII, was also its last pharaoh. After her death in 30 BCE, the Roman Empire assumed control of its affairs. The forces of Julius Caesar are said to have destroyed the contents of Alexandria’s Great Library when they set fire to their own ships in a siege. Besides installing its own prefect and officials, however, Rome did not seek to change the Ptolemaic social order. Instead, it built upon a working system to provide a steady supply of grain to its cities and armies.

The Arab Conquest of Egypt

Muslim armies reached Egypt in 639 CE. They wrestled control of the region from the struggling Byzantine Empire and began the work of gradually converting its citizens to Islam. Rather than Coptic, the people of Egypt began to speak Arabic. Coptic Christians, likewise, slowly embraced Islam under heavy taxation and discrimination. Between 969 and 1171, the Fatimid Caliphate ruled Egypt from its new capital, Cairo. They were replaced by the Ayyubid dynasty, founded by Saladin, who gained great fame through the Crusades. The Ayyubids were in turn supplanted by the Mamluk Sultanate. The mamluks developed from a social class of the same name, a group of courtly knights in service to Islamic rulers. These people came from many different backgrounds but were predominantly Turkish.

The mamluks grew powerful under the Ayyubids and overthrew them by 1250. Ten years later, they turned back the Mongol invasion that had leveled Baghdad and captured Syria. Cairo thus became the eminent city of the Muslim world. The Mamluks administered their state through appointed governors. Sultans succeeded to the throne via election, chosen by the most powerful officials of the time. Often, the son of the former sultan was selected, but not always. The original slave-soldiers of the mamluk order and their descendants held power until the coming of the Ottoman Empire.

Egypt Under Ottoman and British Control

In 1517, the Ottomans toppled the Mamluks and assumed control of Egypt. As the Eyalet of Egypt, it continued to see significant Mamluk influence. Competing interests between the Mamluks, Ottoman officials, and the native Egyptian people led to an era of instability and political intrigue. Ottoman rule was interrupted briefly by the invasion of Napoleon Bonaparte in 1798. Napoleon attempted to introduce Western-minded reforms to the region, but the French had been driven out again by 1801. In the confusion, the authority of the Mamluks was broken. Muhammad Ali Pasha, an Ottoman vassal, consolidated power over the next few decades.

Egypt of the 19th century played an important role in global politics due to both its position and its resources. The nation attempted to modernize but fell into financial troubles. European powers like the United Kingdom and France used this opportunity to gain a foothold in its government. They had a vested interest in the health of Egypt, the site of the invaluable Suez Canal. Foreign interference in the nation, both Turkish and European, proved unpopular. In 1882, widespread rebellion pushed the British to occupy Egypt with military backing. They would continue to do so until 1956.

The British worked alongside Ottoman officials until 1922, when it formally recognized Egyptian independence. It would take another revolution in 1952 to establish the Republic of Egypt and begin the process of British withdrawal.

Modern Egyptian Societies

Today, Egypt is a semi-presidential republic led by a president and parliament. Since its formation, modern Egypt has been involved in the politics of the Middle East, including territorial disputes with Israel and issues of ownership over the Suez Canal. In 2011, a new political movement known as the Egyptian revolution arose as part of the larger Arab Spring. Through demonstrations and protests, the government of President Hosni Mubarak was overthrown. This led to further political turmoil between liberal and conservative forces within the nation. The Muslim Brotherhood’s Mohamed Morsi then became president, but he was removed from power by the military following popular unrest in 2013. The current President of Egypt is former General Abdel Fattah el-Sisi.

References

Asante, Molefi Kete. Culture and Customs of Egypt. Greenwood Publishing Group. 2002.

Brier, Bob and A. Hoyt Hobbs. Daily Life of the Ancient Egyptians. Greenwood Publishing Group. 2008.

Fischer-Bovet, Christelle. Army and Society in Ptolemaic Egypt. Cambridge University Press. 2014.

Goldschmidt Jr., Arthur. A Brief History of Egypt. Infobase Publishing. 2008.

Petry, Carl F, ed. The Cambridge History of Egypt. Vols. 1-2. Cambridge University Press. 2008.

Romer, John. A History of Ancient Egypt: From the First Farmers to the Great Pyramid. Macmillan. 2013.

Thompson, Jason. A History of Egypt: From Earliest Times to the Present. Knopf Doubleday. 2011.

“The World Factbook: Egypt.” Central Intelligence Agency, Central Intelligence Agency, 30 Oct. 2018, www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/eg.html.

Winter, Michael. Society and Religion in Early Ottoman Egypt: Studies in the Writings of 'Abd Al-Wahhab Al-Sha 'Rani. Routledge. 2017.

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