The Canoes of the Maori
A description of Maori canoe building methods, workmanship, and traditions.
From: 1300 C.E. To: 1913 C.E.
Location: New Zealand
Note: This article has been excerpted from a larger work in the public domain and shared here due to its historical value. It may contain outdated ideas and language that do not reflect TOTA’s opinions and beliefs.
From The Art Workmanship of the Maori Race In New Zealand by Augustus Hamilton
ON THE CANOES OF THE MAORIS
To the Polynesians, the ocean rovers of the Southern Seas—"The great ocean of Kiwa"—the canoe was of necessity their most valued possession, and in its highest development was a noble and beautiful object, being admired by the early visitors to New Zealand as much for its sea-going qualities as for the beauty of its ornamentation. For many years it has been impossible to see any specimen of the first-class canoe in battle order, and now it is only in the Auckland Museum that a specimen can be seen in any way representing the old war canoe or Waka-taua of the Maoris.
The general details of the construction and fittings of a war canoe have been given by Mr. Barstow, in his paper on the Maori canoe, in the Transactions of the New Zealand Institute for 1878, but there were some kinds of canoe which are not mentioned in that paper which are of interest. The early works on New Zealand also give fragments of information. Earle states that none but men of rank were allowed to work on the making of a war canoe, and that they laboured like slaves at the heavy task of shaping from the rough log with fire and stone tools, the various parts of the whole. The Tohunga of the tribe always directed the work, each stage of progress being accompanied by appropriate Karakias, many of which have been preserved. In connection with each of the historical canoes there are at least seven kinds of Karakias which have been used :—
The Karakia used in felling the tree—tua.
The Karakia used in giving power to the tokis or axes to shape the canoe.
The Karakia used when the canoe was drawn out of the bush, to-to-waka.
The Ruruku used in "binding" or making propitious the heavens before starting on a long voyage.
The Awa-moana, to calm the sea.
The Uru-uru-whenua, used on arrival at a strange land.
The Tuki-waka, used to give time to the paddlers.
There were also Karakias for the naming of a canoe when the priest sprinkled it with water with a branch of Kawa-kawa (Piper exeelsum). The ceremony was accompanied by the sacrifice of a slave.
Two kinds of canoe seem to have entirely disappeared, and are only represented in sketches or descriptions. For Polack says :—" Among the early occupants of New Zealand canoes were made entirely of the bulrush (typha). We have seen between Kaipara and Hokianga one of these vessels of olden time nearly sixty feet in length, capable of holding as many persons, but they are now (1836) wholly in disuse. They were remarkably thick, formed entirely of rushes, except the thwarts, and resembled the model of a canoe in every particular. They were remarkably light, like the coracles of the ancient Britons, though many bundles of rushes were consumed in forming them, and were paddled with much velocity, until saturated, when they settled down in the water."
Frequent mention is made by early voyagers of double canoes, Wakaunua and Taurua, with a platform, pora, from vessel to vessel, suitable for extended
voyages; and an old resident in Otago states that since 1835 he has seen double canoes fishing off the Otago Heads. Some of Te Rauparaha's southern raids were made in canoes of this kind. Maori tradition says that the Arawa had a platform connecting the two hulls, and a house on the top, and that this canoe had three masts.
The large kauris and pines of the North Island enabled canoes of great size to be made. It is on record that remains of a single canoe could be seen at Hauraki in 1855 which measured 110 feet in length.
As an outlet for the decorative genius of the Maori race, the war canoe afforded a fine field for native talent. The large ornamented prow and stern piece—tauihu and rapa, both removable pieces—had to be carved from the solid log, the tau-ihu, or figurehead, requiring a log about four feet in diameter by about five or six feet in length, and the rapa, or stern piece, a log about fifteen inches in diameter and from six to ten feet in length, sometimes even fifteen feet. These logs had to be gradually worked down to the required shape and then carved with elaborate conventional patterns.
It will be seen from the examples figured that the types are well marked, but that the elaboration of detail and the style of execution is very varied, the Maori carver possessing the wonderful art common amongst Oriental craftsmen of working out a design to suit any accidents of material or space. The fixed nature of the type may be accounted for by the reverence of the Maori for tradition and the dread of the vengeance of the gods for the least infringement of the principles of the art. Add to this the localisation of the art of war canoe building, almost entirely to the East Coast district, and we can well understand the stereotyped agreement of the component part of the carvings for the bow and stern of the war canoe.
Prominent in the design of a first-class canoe is the elaborate coil work called pitau, representing—so I was informed by an old Maori—the young circinate frond of the tree fern Mamaku. The small studs between the coils represents the pinnae. From it the first-class war canoe was sometimes called generically a Waka-pitau. All large canoes had special names, as the " Arawa," the Tainui,"or the " Aotea."
The prow usually contains representations of four human figures, all of whom, no doubt, have a significance, but I have only been able to obtain a trustworthy description of some of the parts. Those old men who were well versed in mythological lore and who did know are all dead, and their knowledge has died with them. The same beautiful spiral work (pitau) is seen to advantage in the stern post. The little figure perched aloft near the top is sometimes called Paikea, but here again the full explanation is wanting.
The small figure at the end of the figure-head looking into the canoe is called Huaki, and the thin board-like central piece with a human figure between two pitau spirals is called Manaia by the Arawas, or Tauroa by the Ngati-porou.
On the stern-ornament or Rapa, the figure looking into the canoe, or that part of the carving, is called Puhi-kai-ariki, the lower portion of the base where it rests on the Rauawa or in some cases on the Haumi, is called Puhi-tainga-wai. The upper portion near the figure, which I have called Paikea, is Puhi-taiapa.
There is another beautiful type of tau-ihu which is very scarce, and which appears to have been almost confined to the Northern Districts, especially Auckland and the Waikato. It consists of four parts, instead of being hewn out of the solid block. The central board (or Manaia of the usual type) is largely occupied by pitau spirals irregularly divided by broad bands, the main one passing diagonally from the upper corner in front to the lower corner behind. In the three or four examples I have seen, the general pattern is the same. This main portion fits into a groove in the middle of the diamond-shaped base, and appears to have been secured by dowel pegs. The transverse portion carrying the Huaki figure is supported on each side by human figures, and is elaborately carved. This also fits into a groove cut transversely across the base, and has a groove to receive the end of the Manaia. The fourth portion is the front part of the base, and represents a realistic human head well tattooed, without the usual protruding tongue. This is sometimes made removable.
Connecting the tau-ihu and rapa, and firmly lashed to the riu or hull of the canoe, are the topsides, rauawa, hewn out of a log, and sometimes carved from end to end. By means of small holes in the hull and topside these were firmly lashed together with braided undressed flax lashings, and the down of the Raupo (Typha) was used for caulking the seams and holes. Outside over the joint is secured a long thin batten painted black (taka). This was firmly bound with flax lashings, and small tufts of gannets' feathers were inserted to cover the lashings, the white feathers forming a striking contrast to the black taka or batten and the red sides of the canoe. The part of the hull of the canoe underneath the tau-ihu was painted with a beautiful pattern in red, black, and white (puhoro). The pattern seems to have its motive in the rippling of the waves.
The whole of the specimens to be figured in the work will be shown just as they now appear in collections, but it must be recollected that when in use and in gala dress the figure-head had an elaborate wig of feathers, and bunches of feathers extended along the top of the thin central board. From the top of the stern-post hung long ornamental streamers reaching to the water (puhi-rere), made of bunches of the feathers from the tail of pigeon or kaka (Nestor).
The prow (tau-ihu) was sometimes decorated with two long curving wands (puhi) resembling the antennae of a butterfly, elaborately ornamented with albatross' feathers tied in small bunches at intervals of about a foot.
In Forster's "Voyage Round the World"* he mentions under the date November, 1773, seeing in Queen Charlotte's Sound, "the war canoe in which a war expedition had been made; it had a carved head ornamented with bunches of brown feathers, and a double pronged fork projected from it, on which the heart of their slain enemy was transfixed."
Along the coast of the Central and Southern part of the North Island, I have always found the tau-ihu and rapa painted the same colour as the canoe—a fine red colour made from kokowai, a red ochre or oxide of iron, mixed with shark oil; but in the Northern part of the Island they were generally painted black.
The inside of the canoe was fitted with a flooring or grating of small rods or battens (kaiwae), and the thwarts (taumanu) for the paddlers were lashed to the top sides and acted as braces: these were frequently caned at the ends and in the middle.
For special expeditions the canoe was fitted up with various conveniences, the fore-part being partly covered in. Paddles (hoe) in plenty were provided, and a large and often highly ornamented steering paddle (urunga). The beautifully carved canoe paddles which are seen in collections, in which the blade as well as the handle is ornamented, were mostly weapons of ceremony, and used by chiefs in the war dance. A beautiful specimen with a unique handle has been recently acquired by the Dresden Museum.
An important article was the tata or baler, also called tiheru in the North, admirably designed for its purpose, with the handle turned inwards, thus applying the requisite power with the least exertion. In a few instances the handle is made stronger by not being separated at either end from the scoop. There are also some balers with the handle projecting like a sugar scoop.
The sails (ra, or mamaru) of the canoe were used in favourable weather, and consisted of a triangular mat, made in a peculiar manner from the leaves of the raupo, with the mast and boom forming two of its sides, the point was at the bottom, the upper end was ornamented with tufts of feathers and streamers, the whole being supported by stays and sheets of plaited flax. A large stone at either end, secured by a strongly plaited flax rope, served as an anchor (punga). Grooves were chipped round or holes bored in the stone to enable the rope to be firmly attached, and sometimes the stones were slightly ornamented. The anchor stones of the Arawa canoe were named Taka-parore and Tu-te-rangi-haruru. Occasionally a flax basket or kete is filled with stones and let down as an anchor.
Although the canoes rolled a good deal in a heavy sea, they were capable of travelling at a considerable rate when urged by the rhythmical strokes of the paddles of the crew. Then the men sang boat songs led by special leaders (Kai-hautu) who animated them to special exertions, and displayed great skill and address in running up and down the canoe, stepping from seat to seat. The steersman sometimes led the chant. The men knelt on the framework (kaiwae) made of manuka sticks to paddle, but when going along leisurely they sometimes sat on the taumanu or stretcher which connected the topsides. Mr. Shortland mentions a temporary deck of raupo or flax by which the fore-parts of the canoes were covered in for a few feet when making coastal voyages of any length, as a protection against the sea.
When the triangular raupo sails were set the canoes sailed well in a good breeze, sailing very close to the wind, but not having any hold on the water they made great leeway. If there was any sea on, they could not run before the wind in consequence of their great length. When well managed, however, they were kept in the trough of the sea, and thus weathered the numerous squalls so frequent on the New Zealand coasts. In the early years of the present century they frequently left the Bay of Islands fifty or more together, on long coastal voyages as far as Raukawa (Cook's Straits) generally for war, sometimes to trade mats and weapons for pounamu. Some expeditions from the Bay of Islands ventured down the coasts of the South Island. The crossing of the Straits was always dreaded, and numerous spells (Awa-moana) are preserved which had power to still the waves and winds of Raukawa. When the large canoes were not in use special shelter sheds I u-harau) were built for their protection from the weather.
The second class of canoes ( Waka tete) consisted of those used for fishing parties and river work, or for short journeys. The figure-head was of a simple type, and consisted of a human head with the tongue conspicuously extended. The portion connecting the head with the canoe was quite plain, but often beautifully shaped, with an elegant curve. The rapa, or stern post, was smaller and plain, sometimes having a human figure at the base looking into the boat, as in the more elaborate ones. These were not usually adorned with feathers, but painted red. Canoes of this class are still in use on the East Coast of the North Island for fishing purposes.
The third class consists of the simple dug-out, without topsides or carved ornaments, used for crossing small rivers or for fishing in calm weather. They are called Waka-tiwai, kopapa, or tararo. These canoes were often painted in some of the usual Maori scroll patterns—in red or black and white.
Many very beautiful model canoes are made by the Maoris, but not to any scale. Angas, in his book, mentions finding a small model canoe placed in a Wahi-tapu (cemetery) at Te Pahi, containing some of the property of a deceased chief, and they are not uncommon in collections.
Hamilton, A. (Augustus), 1853-1913, and Royal Society of New Zealand. The Art Workmanship of the Maori Race In New Zealand: a Series of Illustrations From Specially Taken Photographs, With Descriptive Notes And Essays On the Canoes, Habitations, Weapons, Ornaments, And Dress of the Maoris, Together With Lists of Words In the Maori Language Used In Relation to the Subjects. Dunedin, N.Z.: Printed and published for the board of governors [of the New Zealand institute] by Fergusson & Mitchell, 18961900.
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