Ethiopian Society
A short description of Amharic and Oromo social structures in Ethiopia.
For the most part, this article examines the societies of Ethiopia’s large political states. Modern Ethiopia, however, is a rural nation home to about 80 different ethnic groups, all of whom organize and coexist in their own unique ways. They represent four major linguistic groups: Cushitic, Semitic, Omotic, and Nilo-Saharan. The primary language families used in Ethiopia today are Oromo (Cushitic) and Amharic (Semitic).
Social Structures of the Kingdom of Aksum
The first well documented kingdom of Ethiopia was Aksum, a powerful trading state of the Red Sea and Mediterranean. It functioned like most other kingdoms, with a powerful ruler supported by a small noble class and larger societies of farmers and tradesmen. Over time, it is likely that Aksum grew to become an empire. The Ge’ez script, a language no longer spoken but still used for religious texts, developed during its reign.
In the 4th century CE, Aksum converted to Christianity. The region was already familiar with Abrahamic religions through a long Judaic presence. Christianity brought churches, priests, and a strong monastic traditions. Over the hundreds of years that followed, kings would trace their descent to an even more ancient Ethiopian state: one ruled by the Biblical Queen of Sheba and her son, a child of Solomon. This direct tie to the Old Testament served not only as inspiration to Christian Ethiopians, but also a source of political authority.
Society During the Early Solomonic Dynasty
The Solomonic dynasty reclaimed this spiritual heritage around 1270 CE. It would rule Ethiopia more or less continuously until 1974. The early kings of the Solomon dynasty did not keep a fixed capital. Instead, they traveled across their territories in large tent cities, supplied by the vassals who hosted them. Ethiopia has always been surrounded by powerful neighbors, requiring its own strong military, navy, and diplomacy to survive. Eventually, the Solomonic emperors settled at Gondar in the 16th century. There they built some of the most impressive castles and palaces of Africa.
Oromo Societies and the Gadaa System
As the Ethiopian empire reached the height of its power, sweeping influxes of migrating peoples began to threaten its stability. Of these, the largest were the Oromo. Oromo peoples possess their own long history and practiced a complex, patriarchal social structure known as Gadaa.
Under the Gadaa system, a person falls under two groups, one determined by age and the other by patrilineal ancestry. These classes typically move in 10 or 11 eight-year cycles, or grades. For age classes, these cycles regulate a person’s education, duties, military service, and life events such as marriage. A 25-year-old man, for example, may enter the third grade, at which point future political leaders are distinguished for special training. Marriage takes place among the entire age group around 32, or Grade 4. A man’s grade, however, is determined less by his own age than by his father’s; the two must always be five grades, or about 40 years, apart.
At Grade 6, when the men are about 48 years old, a peaceful transition of power takes place. The incoming class assumes political authority as part of a Gadaa council, led by the men elected in Grade 3. The outgoing class may serve as advisors. In this way, power is handed off between generations, rather than held by a single monarch for life. Gadaa Assemblies typically meet under a sycamore tree. This system is practiced to a greater or lesser extent among different Oromo communities and may see variations between them. It has been widely studied as an example of democratic and egalitarian governance in Africa.
Creating a Modern Ethiopia
The Oromo are far from the only ethnic group besides the Amhara in Ethiopia. Unifying and holding these many separate cultures together has been a central challenge of its government since the days of Aksum. During its time as an empire, Amharic-speaking groups tended to dominate the nation’s politics, most visibly through the Solomonic dynasty. After thousands of years of independence, the early 20th century saw Ethiopia temporarily conquered and controlled by Benito Mussolini’s Italy. This period of colonialism, combined with famine and general poverty, turned public sentiment against the monarchy. In 1974, the last Ethiopian emperor, Haile Selassie, was overthrown in a military coup.
The socialist government that replaced him, known as the Derg, was administered by military officials. Throughout its regime, the Derg struggled to deal with a civil war, independence movements in Eritrea, and widespread drought and famine. Its responses to these crises resulted in the deaths of hundreds of thousands, if not millions, of people. It underwent a rebranding in 1987 as the People’s Democratic Republic of Ethiopia before being toppled in 1991.
Today, Ethiopia is a federal parliamentary republic. Its modern societies are as varied as ever, ranging from industrial urban economies to nomadic desert herders. From the loss and suppression of the 20th century, Ethiopia has rebounded to play a prominent role in world politics. It is the hub of the African Union and a founding member of the UN. The nation has seen significant social reforms over the last few decades, including greater social participation for women. In October, 2018, the nation elected its first female president, Sahle-Work Zewde.
References
Addis Getahun, Solomon and Wudu Tafete Kassu. Culture and Customs of Ethiopia. ABC-CLIO. 2014.
Briggs, Philip and Brian Blatt. Ethiopia. Bradt Travel Guides. 2009
De Waal, Alexander. Evil Days: Thirty Years of War and Famine in Ethiopia. Human Rights Watch. 1991.
Gish, Steven, Winnie Thay, and Zawiah Abdul Latif. Ethiopia. Marshall Cavendish. 2007.
Gnamo, Abbas. Conquest and Resistance in the Ethiopian Empire, 1880 - 1974: The Case of the Arsi Oromo. BRILL. 2014.
Lemma, Misael. “Ethiopia: Economic Growth Behind Ethiopia's Rapid Urbanization.” AllAfrica, AllAfrica, 2 Mar. 2018, allafrica.com/stories/201803010493.html.
Marcus, Harold G. A History of Ethiopia. University of California Press. 2002.
“The World Factbook: Ethiopia.” Central Intelligence Agency, Central Intelligence Agency, 1 Feb. 2018, www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/et.html.
Uhlig, Siegbert, David Appleyard, et. al. Ethiopia: History, Culture, and Challenges. LIT Verlag Münster. 2017.
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