Persian Cultural Overview

Persians, or Iranians, are the major ethnic group of Iran and the historic empires of Persia.

Geography

Iran is a Middle Eastern nation bridging the Persian Gulf and Caspian Sea. The majority of its land lies on the Iranian Plateau, a dry, mountainous region with no large rivers. Most of Iran’s population lives in the northern and western portions of the country. About 60 percent of its population are of Persian descent, and Persian-speaking peoples like the Tajiks can also be found in neighboring nations. Other ethnic groups within Iran include Azeris, Kurds, and Turkic peoples.

• Climate: Arid to subtropical

• Capital: Tehran

• Total Population: 83,024,745 (Iran total, 2018 est.)

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History

Iran’s history is the story of one of the oldest and grandest civilizations in the world. Its cultural heritage begins about 4,000 years ago, when Indo-Iranian groups migrated to the Iranian Plateau. There they mixed with indigenous populations to form Iranian cultures like the Persians, Parthians, and Medes. Their kingdoms developed in the shadow of Assyria, a powerful early empire of the Middle East. In 612 BCE, the Persians and Medes were part of a broader alliance that at last crushed the Neo-Assyrians.

The vacuum left by the Assyrians allowed Iranian states to grow and soon surpass them. States like the Median, Achaemenid, and Parthian Empires all participated in the power struggles of Eurasian antiquity, including notable conflicts with Ancient Greece and Rome. The Achaemenids in particular are remembered as a golden age of Persian culture before their conquest by Alexander the Great. Alexander’s short-lived marked the start of a long pattern of native Persian states interrupted by invaders. In 636 CE, the Sasanian Empire fell to invading Muslim armies, and Persia was soon converted to Islam.

Persia remained a major cultural influence within the Arab Caliphates until the Mongol invasion of the 13th century. It then passed under the control of the Mongol Empire’s Ilkhanate, which again drew much of its culture from earlier Persian customs. This period also saw increasing trade and cultural exchange with China. Persian control in the region resumed in 1501 with the Safavid dynasty, which held its own against expanding powers like Ottoman Turkey and Russia. Over time, however, it lost a series of wars against Russia and significant territories in the process.

By 1923, Iran had organized as a constitutional monarchy with Reza Shah Pahlavi at its head. Pahlavi brought modern reforms to the nation, despite criticism of his authoritarian tactics and openness to foreign business interests. After World War II, he was deposed in favor of his son, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, as Shah. During his reign, Prime Minister Mohammed Mosaddeq moved to nationalize the country’s oil industry, previously controlled by Britain. With the Shah facing exile, British and US forces intervened, launching a coup against Mosaddeq and preserving the reign of the Shah in 1953. He remained in power until 1979, when conservative Islamic forces overthrew the monarchy in the Iranian Revolution. Since that time, Iran has seen difficult but gradually thawing relationships with its neighbors and the United States.

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Daily Life

Despite its dry climate, the Iranian Plateau has long been one of the agricultural centers of the Middle East. Communities of sedentary farmers, surrounded by nomadic herders, used extensive irrigation to grow crops like wheat, barley, pomegranates, citrus, grapes, dates, almonds and pistachios. Later, rice became a popular grain as well. In addition, Iranian meals frequently features yogurt and cheeses. Persian cuisine is notable for its desserts, which have been globally influential, including the sweet drink sherbet.

Historic housing styles have ranged from multi-story farmhouses perched on mountain slopes to urban homes with central courtyards. Clothing has varied by time and place but tends to feature colorful silks and cottons, often in the form of wraps, jackets, and baggy trousers. Today, modest Western apparel is increasingly common and accepted in Iran.

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Society

Historically, Persian society was one of empire, royal dynasties, and the smaller communities that supported them. Persian states of antiquity were particularly famed for their administration, allowing them to control large and diverse populations like never before. Their state funded a central army, roads, and postal service, as well as monuments and gardens. Generally, each province, or satrap, was governed by a Persian nobleman but also managed by local officials.

By keeping a light touch and offering the perks of a unified empire, the Persians held power for hundreds of years. Their strategies would go on to influence the Islamic Caliphates, the Mongol Ilkhanate, and the later Persian Safavids. The widespread transition to Shia Islam under the Safavids would impact the politics of the Middle East to the present day. Safavid society, ruled by a Shah, offered relatively high social mobility. Shah Abbas I, perhaps its greatest ruler, was known to sponsor the arts and education and promote talented commoners to high positions. The Safavids were replaced by the Ashfarid and Qajar dynasties.

By the early 20th century, Iran had fallen under the sway of its last two Shahs, commonly known as Reza Shah and Mohammad Reza Pahlavi. After the former’s removal by British and Russian forces in 1941, the latter, his son, took over. His reign survived through a 1953 US- and British-backed coup, which removed Prime Minister Mohammad Mossadeq from power. A second uprising, however, met greater success in 1979. The Shah fled the nation, his government replaced by a theocratic, Islamic republic.

• Major Languages: Persian, Azeri, Kurdish, Gilaki and Mazandarani, Luri, Balochi, Arabic (Iran overall)

• Urban Population: 74.9% (Iran overall)

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Economy

The Persian economy, since antiquity, has benefited from its position along the lucrative trade routes connecting the markets of China, the Middle East, Europe, and North Africa. Even before the Silk Road, Persian roads acted as vital lifelines between provinces and the outside world. These provinces paid taxes proportional to their wealth, usually in terms of agricultural output. The Achaemenid Royal Road, at its height, stretched the 1,667 miles between Susa and Sardis. As they traveled along this road, merchants stayed at caravanserais, or inns maintained for their safety and comfort.

Through conquest, trade, and administration, the empires of Persia grew wealthy and powerful. The silk industry in particular proved especially lucrative. Cities were home to private or state-sponsored workshops, supporting a middle class of craftsmen and bureaucrats. Meanwhile, the common people of the country continued their ancient farming and herding. Industrialization occurred slowly, often alongside the growth of Iran’s oil industry or in response to military defeat. Today, oil and gas are still the primary industries of Iran. Many of its industries are now state-run, though private enterprise is also common. Foreign sanctions have periodically disrupted the nation’s economic growth.

• Major Industries: Petroleum, petrochemicals, gas, fertilizer, caustic soda, textiles, cement and other construction materials, food processing

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Beliefs

Historically, Iran and Persia have been home to many different faiths. The region has been home to a Jewish community since ancient times. Perhaps its most notable early religion was Zoroastrianism, which revolved around a cosmic duality between the forces of creation and destruction. When Christianity entered the scene, it drew influences from the Persian faith and soon established roots in the region. A related faith, Manichaeism, also found followers there.

By the 7th century, Islam had risen to become the major religion of Persia. Older Persian customs would have a profound impact on the development of Islam, including through its control of Baghdad and the later Mongol Ilkhanate. During the 16th century, most of Safavid Persia converted from Sunni to Shia Islam. This would set Persia at odds with many of its powerful neighbors, a dynamic still in play today. The 20th century saw increasing secularization in Iran, including Western-style reforms and apparel. This sudden transition grew deeply unpopular with the common people. The 1979 Iranian Revolution was in part an effort to restore Islamic values to Iranian society.

Today, the nation remains deeply religious. The President of Iran is outranked by its Supreme Leader, a cleric who is responsible for appointing most important positions within the country. The role is currently held by Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei.

Religious Demographics:

• Shia Muslim: 90-95%

• Sunni Muslim: 5-10%

• Unspecified 0.4%

• Other (includes Zoroastrian, Jewish, and Christian): 0.3% (2011 est.)

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Arts & Music

Persia is also home to a long and storied art tradition. Early empires like the Achaemenids carved reliefs and sculptures into their palaces, showcasing their military might and the tributes offered to them. Over time, medieval miniatures and illuminated manuscripts grew more popular, particularly after the adoption of Islam. This bloomed into a separate school of art, which adorned mosques and palaces with complex geometric patterns and natural imagery. As silk and other textiles flowed through Persian trade towns, its artisans learned to create beautiful clothing, tapestries, carpets, and more. In addition, the Persian language is well suited to poetry and has produced national epics like the Shahnameh.

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References

Amanat, Abbas. Iran: A Modern History. Yale University Press. 2017.

André-Salvini, Béatrice. Forgotten Empire: The World of Ancient Persia. University of California Press. 2005.

Axworthy, Michael. A History of Iran: Empire of the Mind. Basic Books. 2016.

Foltz, R. Religions of the Silk Road: Premodern Patterns of Globalization. Springer. 2010.

Frye, Richard. Persia. Routledge. 2011.

“The World Factbook: Iran.” Central Intelligence Agency, Central Intelligence Agency, 12 July 2018, www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ir.html.

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