Japanese Warfare
The first era of unification was under the Yamato Court with the Emperor of Heaven at its center. While no conclusive theory has emerged about their settlement and development, the…
History
The first era of unification was under the Yamato Court with the Emperor of Heaven at its center. While no conclusive theory has emerged about their settlement and development, the kings and local rulers under the Yamato emperor seem to have served a priestly or religious function as well as governmental duties. A prince under Empress Suiko in 592 CE, Prince Shōtoku championed the Buddhist and Confucian ideals for an ideal government. In 603, he achieved a Seventeen-Article Constitution for the empire that created twelve court ranks whose members were identified by colored caps and chosen for their merit and competence. He also opened relations with the Sui dynasty on equal terms, helping to build Chinese style Buddhist temples in Japan and sending students to the mainland to learn from Chinese scholars.[1]
In 1185, Minamoto Yoritomo, a supremely skilled samurai, gained military hegemony over all of Japan and was named the first shogun. Due to the increasingly feudal nature of Japan and the increase of individual control of land becoming more important then imperial favor, control of the military equated political control of the country, reducing the Emperor to a figurehead that backed the leading shogun. Political control and rule over Japan was passed down through samurai clans until another clan supplanted them.
In 1333, the Kamakura shogunate collapsed and was replaced with a second shogunate led by Ashikaga Takauji. While the capital was located in the imperial city of Kyōto, independent warlords called Shugo Daimyo drew their personal income from taxing peasants on their land, making them less reliant upon—and more independent of—the shogun and emperor. This caused the influence and control of the ruling Shogun to be undermined. The Shogun period was the height of the samurai warrior who waged battles against other clans and vied for increased military and political power.
In 1603, after thirty-five years of conquest over three generations, the Tokugawa shogunate emerged as the undisputed masters of Japan after having subjugated over two hundred shogunates and moving their capital to modern-day Tokyo.[2] This ushered in the Edo period, an unprecedented time of peace and prosperity where Japanese culture flourished, and society was reinforced in its stratification of warriors wielding the most power, followed by farmers, then craftsmen, and finally merchants at the bottom.[3]
This brewed social tension until local domestic problems and fears of encroaching western powers sparked the Maji Restoration in 1868. The Restoration abolished the samurai class, returned political power to the emperor, and brought about sweeping upheaval that led to the rapid modernization and westernization of Japan. The samurai code, Bushido, was adopted to apply to the entire country and replaced samurai loyalty to his master with the citizen's loyalty and duty to the state and the emperor.[4] The goal was the create a stable state that was capable of interacting with western powers as equals to avoid the colonial subjugation, as was being endured by China.[5]
Rule under the Meiji emperor continued, surviving several uprisings until political pressure forced the emperor to draft and approve a constitution; this createda bicameral parliament, called the Diet, who was elected by a limited voting population.[6]
During World War I, Japan honored an alliance with Britain and invaded the German colony of Tsingtao in China, chasing the German fleet out of the Pacific.[7] After the war, Japan was unable to achieve military self-sufficiency with the resources on their island, so they suddenly and aggressively expanded into the Pacific.
In 1931, Japan invaded Manchuria and in 1937, launched a horrifically savage attack on China. In 1940, Japan signed a treaty with the Axis Powers and in 1941, launched a surprise attack on the American naval base at Pearl Harbor. The intent was to cripple the United States’ naval capacity in the Pacific and keep them out of Japanese affairs. Instead, several carriers and destroyers escaped the attack and America entered the war. Japan moved fast, taking Guam and Wake Island in December and following up with the Philippines, Dutch East Indies, Hong Kong, Malaya, Singapore, and Burma in the first half of 1942.[8] The turning point came when American naval forces defeated the Japanese navy at the battle of Midway and halted the Japanese advance, allowing Allied forces to retake the Philippines and Burma, and capture several strategically critical Japanese islands—from which to launch aerial bombing campaigns like the firebombing of Tokyo. The end of the war came on August 6, 1945 when the United States dropped the first atomic bomb on Hiroshima and the second on Nagasaki on August 9. Japan surrendered, formally and unconditionally, on August 14, 1945.[9]
Battles
Battle of Kurikara
In 1180, Japan was in the throes of the Gempei War, a brutal struggle between the Taira and Minamoto clans for control of Japan. The Taira clan had held control of the imperial capital for nearly thirty years; Minamoto Yoritomo leader of the Minamoto clan capitalized on the growing unrest to execute a revolt.[10]
After a string of victories, the Taira agreed to fight a fair and traditional battle. Minamoto agreed, despite heavily outnumbering his enemy, and the battle proceeded as planned. Once the mounted archery duel began, the Minamoto attacked with the full strength of their army, pushing the confused Taira into a narrow valley. The Minamoto then tied lit torches to the horns of oxen and rushed them forward, stampeding and burning most of the Taira army. Simultaneously, mounted archers ambushed them from the rear, killing survivors missed by the oxen. Minamoto rode to the capital and established the first shogun dynasty.[11]
First and Second Mongol Invasion
In 1274, the Mongol ruler Kublai Khan sent an expeditionary force of forty thousand Mongols aboard nine hundred Chinese ships to scout out Japan. They arrived in Hakata Bay and smashed through the defenses. This was the samurai’s first military contact with foreigners, and the ritualistic warriors were wholly unprepared for the brutal effectiveness of mounted Mongol warriors who were in possession of bows and gunpowder cannons. The Mongols took the coastline and seemed poised to take all of Japan; but this was only a scouting party—a fraction of the Mongol horde—and, after gathering their intelligence, they left.
In 1281, the Mongols returned with 150,000 strong across two fleets. This time, the Japanese were ready; they had constructed a short wall around Hakata Bay. The first fleet from Korea arrived ahead of the second Chinese fleet, and the samurai prevented them from establishing a foothold. The Korean fleer fell back to regroup with the Chinese, but both fleets got caught in a sudden typhoon which destroyed them. The Japanese called the storm a Kamikaze, or divine wind, because it was believed that it saved Japan.[12]
Tactics
In feudal Japan, the ninja was a soldier trained in covert espionage and assassination. While ninjas could not leap a ten-foot wall or perform incredible acrobatics like in the movies, they did train extensively in infiltration and climbing. They could serve as advanced scouts and pinpoint assassins for their shogun master, and were essential in sophisticated shogun intelligence networks.[13]
Battles during the Shogun Era (1185-1863) were very ritualized and began by a samurai leader reciting poetry, then describing his long list of achievements and victories before selecting enemy soldiers to fight. An enemy samurai would complete the same ritual, then both sides would exchange archery shots until they mounted their horses and continued the duel on horseback. Once both sides ran out of arrows and no one had been harmed, each side would agree that their honor had been satisfied and would ride for home.[14]
Alternatively, samurai could engage in single combat with an enemy samurai, both using katanas, in front of their respective armies. Whoever triumphed would win the battle.[15] Strict rules of honorable combat applied. For example, the severed heads of enemy samurai were supposed to be returned to their forces on nailed boards. To defy tradition would be to soil one’s victory.[16]
Samurai trained extensively in the sword and their styles were best suited against a single combatant because that was the type of fighting when they were the most likely to use their sword. In open battle, samurai used bows and spears, only resorting to their swords as a last resort.
Weapons
The apex soldier in Japan was unquestionably the samurai. Expertly trained and dedicated to the ideals of honor and glory, the samurai were an exceptional fighting force. Through legend and popular culture, the samurai have acquired a mystique and aura of infallibility about them.
The most famous example of this is the katana, a traditional Japanese two-handed sword primarily used for individual duels between two samurai.[17] Despite popular belief spawned by Hollywood and anime, the katana is not the greatest sword ever made; it cannot cut through plate armor, other swords, or tank barrels. It cannot move faster than can be defended, and it is not the lightest sword ever made. It is very good at cutting because that is what the blade geometry and cutting characteristics were designed for—but so were the European saber, Egyptian khopesh, and Chinese dao. At the end of the day, the katana is just a sword, exceptionally well-suited to feudal Japanese warfare, and just like any other weapon, not optimized for use outside of the context for which it was developed.
A historical example of a katana and wakizashi. [18]
This video shows that, contrary to popular belief, the katana cannot simply cut through armor.[19]
Renowned weapons scholar Matt Easton lectures an interesting comparison between the katana and its European counterpart the longsword.[20]
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W8a7gpoSPbY&t=671s
The katana is famous for having supposed unrivaled strength due to the metal being folded over again and again during forging. While this is true, it was likely done to correct for poor quality steel; without the folding to add reinforcement and more evenly distribute carbon across the whole blade, the blades would likely be too brittle and shatter.[21] Spectrographic analysis shows an uneven distribution of carbon along the blade, specifically a higher concentration along the cutting edge. While this makes for a harder and theoretically sharper edge, it potentially weakens the sword overall.[22]
This video shows the entire traditional process of forging a katana, using traditional tools.[23]
In addition to the katana, the samurai carried a short blade called a wakizashi. It was customary for a samurai to leave their katana at the door when entering a building; however, he always kept his wakizashi on his person. Its most famous use was to commit ritual suicide, seppuku, in the event of dishonor.[24]
During open warfare, the samurai would use a bow or spear, or direct troops from a strategic position. While the katana held enormous cultural importance and symbolic significance, it was not the primary weapon used for open warfare, only for single duels.[25]
An exhibit of a fight between multiple samurai during a battle. Notice the use of polearms over swords [26]
The yumi is a traditional Japanese bow that is notable for its characteristic asymmetry and size. The Japanese bow is one of the largest in Asia and it was used by samurai, either on foot or horseback, as one of the primary battle weapons.[27] Today, it is preserved in the martial art called Kyudo in which practitioners don traditional dress and practice the ritualized motions of shooting a bow.
Members of the Gotemba Kyudo Association demonstrate Kyudo or "the way of archery." [28]
This video shows the tremendous ritual and spiritual focus involved in Kyudo, preserved in an unbroken lineage for hundreds of years.[29]
Armor
Japanese armor is made of plates of metal or leather that are bound together with leather or silk. The armor is lightweight and mobile, while still protecting key areas.
Chest armor made of over 500 scales. [30]
Additionally, higher-ranked samurai would ornament their armor often with face shields, masks, and elaborate headdresses. The helmet was often designed for intimidation, featuring an imposing face mask and intimidating decoration.[31]
A typical example of an ornamented samurai helmet. [32]
Samurai wore their hair in a topknot called a Chomage and shaved the top of their heads in preparation for battle to reduce heat under their helmets.[33] The breastplate was a single piece of overlapping metal or leather plates that were bound together with silk. At the bottom, a skirt designed to protect the thighs was sewn into the breastplate to offer the most protection while still allowing unimpeded footwork. Made of hardened leather or metal, grieves protected the shins.[34] Arm and leg protectors were also tied into the breastplate and consisted of characteristic interwoven slats that provided broad protection for the upper arms and forearms. Many sets of armor also incorporated chainmail.
A set of Samurai armor that incorporates chain mail, Edo period. [35]
After the Portuguese made contact with Japan and introduced firearms in 1543, Japanese armor smiths developed a new type of armor that prized mobility and protection, allowing warriors to quickly enter and exit fighting while providing enough protection to defend against musket fire.[36]
This video from the Asian Art Museum discusses how Samurai armor changed throughout the centuries to reflect new realities of warfare.[37]
A traditional example of a full set of ceremonial samurai armor. [38]
Outside of the battlefield, samurai traditionally wore a silk kimono with their katana and wakizashi thrust through a purpose-made hole in the belt.
Specialties: Honor, Discipline, and Training
Samurai training was intense; education began in childhood when the boy or girl entered a specific school or clan. They received physical training in fighting and swordsmanship.
Samurai trained in unarmed fighting, which formed the foundation for modern Japanese martial arts like jujitsu, judo, karate, and aikido.[39] Most of these arts were adopted from China then modified by the Japanese.[40] While these arts were not practical for the battlefield, the samurai studied them to gain martial skill. Even though kyuba no michi—"the way of the horse and bow”—was the primary method of warfare for the samurai, the sword was still emphasized and formed a significant part of the samurai’s training.[41]
Kendo is the modern derivative of kenjutsu, an umbrella term to describe all Japanese sword arts like Iaido which focuses solely on drawing the sword.[42] The students practiced with wooden sticks before moving on to practicing with steel. The most common application was single combat with other samurai and it explains why Japanese sword styles are optimized for fighting a single opponent.
This painting shows a fully armed and armored samurai with a bow on horseback. [43]
This video shows a modern-day grandmaster training the next generation of samurai.[44]
Another essential aspect of Samurai training was lessons in philosophy, like Zen Buddhism and Confucianism. The warrior's code, called Bushido, was the code that governed every aspect of the samurai’s life—specifically around 1603, when it was infused with Confucian thought and idealized the perfect gentleman.[45]
The Bushido code consisted of eight commandments; justice or rectitude, courage, benevolence or mercy, politeness, honesty, honor, loyalty, and character self-control.[46] Rectitude was an essential foundation of the samurai and is described as the following; “Rectitude is one’s power to decide upon a course of conduct in accordance with reason, without wavering; to die when to die is right, to strike when to strike is right.”[47]
Honor and loyalty played a foundational role in the samurai's conduct. Loyalty to one's master or lord was highly prized, and dishonor was so feared that a samurai would rather kill himself then be humiliated or dishonored.[48] Seppuku, or ritual suicide, was undertaken by samurai who were in danger of being dishonored or captured because, under bushido, it was preferable to die by one’s own hand than face the shame of dishonor. It was done by stabbing a wakizashi into the left side of the abdomen and drawing it to the right; it was considered the highest form of honor if the warrior could stab themselves again under the sternum and cut down across the wound, as it exemplified self-control, discipline, and commitment.[49] Women samurai also committed seppuku but slashed their throats instead of disemboweling themselves.
The Maji restoration in the late 19th century formally abolished the samurai class but repurposed the Bushido philosophy. First, they applied it to every Japanese citizen and replaced loyalty to one’s lord with loyalty to the emperor and state.[50] This led to a massive surge of nationalism and played a significant role in Japanese tenacity during World War II—most noticeably in the suicide pilots who deliberately targeted Allied ships and officers who committed suicide rather than be captured by Allied forces.[51]
The USS bunker hill after being struck by a kamikaze pilot. [52]
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Butler, Sgt Ethan E. Rocke, Photo ID: 2006111752721, Submitting Unit: MCB Camp. Members of the Gotemba Kyudo Association Demonstrate Kyudo or “the Way of Archery.” The Combined Arms Training Center Camp Fuji Hosted Nov. 5 the 2006 Camp Fuji Martial Arts Expo, a Gathering of Japanese Cultural Attractions with an Emphasis on the Martial Arts, Including Demonstrations from 238 Performers with 16 Different Groups and Several Static Displays. The Shizoka Sports Association Estimated the Expo Featured the Widest Variety of Martial Arts Groups at a Single Event, According to Expo Organizers. May 11, 2006. http://www.usmc.mil/marinelink/image1.nsf/Lookup/2006111752721. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Kyudo_or_the_way_of_archery.jpg.
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English: Japanese Folding Armor (Tatami Gusoku), Edo Period. century date QS:P571,+ -00-00T00:00:00Z/7–18th century date QS:P571,+1750-00-00T00:00:00Z/7 1650. Lacquered iron, mailmedium QS:P186,Q29000384, silkmedium QS:P186,Q37681, gilded copper. Metropolitan Museum of Art. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Tatami_gusoku_Met_14.100.538_n2.jpg.
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Unknown. English: Samurai on Horseback, Wearing Armor and Horned Helmet, Carrying Bow and Arrows. circa 1878. This image is available from the United States Library of Congress’s Prints and Photographs division under the digital ID jpd.01046. This tag does not indicate the copyright status of the attached work. A normal copyright tag is still required. See Commons:Licensing for more information. العربية | čeština | Deutsch | English | español | فارسی | suomi | français | עברית | magyar | italiano | македонски | മലയാളം | Nederlands | polski | português | português do Brasil | русский | slovenčina | slovenščina | Türkçe | українська | 中文 | 中文（简体） | 中文（繁體） | +/−. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Samurai_on_horseback0.jpg.
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Wikipedia, U. S. Navy; The original uploader was Quercusrobur at English. English: “USS Bunker Hill (CV-17) Hit by Two Kamikazes in 30 Seconds on 11 May 1945 off Kyushu. Dead-372. Wounded-264., 1943 - 1958”, from Archival Research Catalog.Deutsch: Die USS Bunker Hill Wird Am 11. Mai 1945 Innerhalb von 30 Sekunden von Zwei Kamikaze-Fliegern Getroffen. 372 Personen Sterben, 264 Werden Verwundet.Français : L’USS Bunker Hill Vient d’être Touché Par Deux Kamikazes En l’espace de 30 Secondes, Le 11 Mai 1945 Au Large de Kyushu. Bilan : 372 Morts, 264 Blessés..Italiano: 11 Maggio 1945, Al Largo Di Kyushu. La USS BUNKER HILL è Colpita Da Due Kamikaze in 30 Secondi. Morirono 372 Persone, 264 Feriti.Türkçe: USS Bunker Hill Uçak Gemisinin 30 Saniye Içinde Iki Japon Kamikaze Tarafından Kyūshū Yakınında 11 Mayıs 1945’de Vuruldu. (2.600 Kişilik Mürettebattan 346’sı Öldü, 43’ü Kayboldu ve 264’ü Yaralandı.)Tiếng Việt: Tàu Sân Bay USS Bunker Hill Bị Hai Máy Bay Kamikaze Đâm Vào Trong Trận Trân Châu Cảng.العربية: حاملة الطائرات الأمريكية بانكر هيل، بعد إصابتها من قبل انتحارِيَين، قبالة جزيرة كيوشو اليابانية، بتاريخ 11 مايو 1945، والنتيجة 372 قتيل و264 جريح. May 11, 1945. This media is available in the holdings of the National Archives and Records Administration, cataloged under the National Archives Identifier (NAID) 520678. This tag does not indicate the copyright status of the attached work. A normal copyright tag is still required. See Commons:Licensing for more information. English | Español | Français | Italiano | Македонски | മലയാളം | Nederlands | Polski | Português | Русский | Slovenščina | Türkçe | Українська | Tiếng Việt | 中文（简体） | 中文（繁體） | +/− [1] from Archival Research Catalog. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:USS_Bunker_Hill_hit_by_two_Kamikazes.jpg.
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