Russian Society
A brief synopsis of Russian society and social structures through history.
Societies of Kievan Rus
Russian society emerged as a series of feudal states centered around cities like Kiev, Novgorod, Tver, and Vladimir. At this time, power rested with a small group of ruling princes, most descended from the founding line of Rurik. Below them were the boyars, a prosperous noble class of warriors, merchants, and lawmakers. They oversaw the efforts of a small middle class of tradesman, who clustered in the cities. The majority of the population worked on farming estates as feudal peasants. By the 17th century, these peasants would be tied to their land by birth, a system known as serfdom. During the Kievan Rus period, however, social mobility extended both ways among free people; a person could rise to prosperity or sink to near slavery.
Each city operated in its own way. The Republic of Novgorod, for example, made decisions via elected officials and a council of boyars. Its princes served mostly a formal and military role. Vladimir-Suzdal, meanwhile, maintained a more traditional principality. In general, the nobility of Kievan Rus collected taxes and tributes from their subjects. They often exported these tributes to cities like Constantinople, an important source of income. Their gains could then used to fund armies and import luxury items. In this way, medieval Russia grew into a society of both flourishing wealth and grinding poverty.
Relative autonomy between the cities fostered competition and gradually destroyed the federation. Elder male family members typically inherited the throne, which encouraged rampant infighting within the Rurik dynasty. Events in the wider world, including the Crusades and decline of Constantinople, also weakened Kiev's position from the 12th century on. Vladimir emerged as the new center of Russian trade and culture, a grand duchy. When Tatar and Mongol forces invaded in the 13th century, they left the ruling class intact but exacted tributes of their own from the south. Vladimir, like Kiev, was burned down by the Golden Horde. It has survived to the present day, but its influence faded.
The Duchy of Moscow and the Russian Empire
The presence of the Golden Horde encouraged a consolidation of power among the former states of Kievan Rus. A new Grand Duchy formed in the city of Moscow, an outgrowth of old Vladimir-Suzdal. Through careful political maneuvering, religious centralization, and military strategy, the princes of Moscow succeeded in unifying a Russian state independent of the Tatars. The last of the Rurikids and later Romanovs built an agricultural society on the backs of peasant laborers. Those who owned land tended to be members of the nobility and clergy.
The influence of the boyars declined under the tsars of Moscow, particularly through Ivan the Terrible in the 16th century. In 1721, Tsar Peter the Great moved his capital to the new city of St. Petersburg and founded the Russian Empire. He looked to Europe’s Renaissance to move his empire forward, drawing particular influence from France. The nobles of St. Petersburg abandoned their traditional clothing for European styles. They spoke French fluently, studied abroad, and hired French tutors for their children. Empress Catherine the Great, a correspondent of Voltaire, sponsored arts, music, and literature along Enlightenment themes. During the French Revolution, many nobles fled their country for the safety of Russia.
Russian society grew more and more European, while its peasants continued their ancient feudal lifestyle. Landless farmers, now serfs, lost their right to leave the land they were born on. Those between serfdom and nobility represented a small middle class of bureaucrats, soldiers, merchants, and craftsmen. By the 19th century, the lower classes began stirring against the aristocracy. In 1825, the Decembrist Revolt threatened the reign of Tsar Nicholas I. This and a declining military presence pushed multiple reforms. Serfdom was abolished in 1861 by Tsar Alexander II. Government became more representative, particularly through local councils called zemstva. These moves came too slow and too late, however. In 1871, assassins killed Alexander II with a bomb. His son, Alexander III, responded with violence and cultural conservatism.
Social Structures of the Soviet Union
Tsar Nicholas II inherited an ailing and uncertain empire in 1894. Russia was home to a growing number of anti-monarchical movements, including nihilism and socialism. After several years of World War I, public sentiment reached a boiling point. The Russian Revolution of 1917 swept away the old class system along with the Tsar and his family. It was replaced by a Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, the USSR.
Under socialism, the Soviet Union attempted to implement a classless state that served all people. A centralized ruling party made decisions through committee and a party congress. Over time, the Politburo and its General Secretary, a position held by men like Joseph Stalin, Nikita Khrushchev, and Mikhail Gorbachev, grew most powerful. In addition, leaders of the Soviet Union could hold the titles of Premier or Head of State. Although social mobility was higher than in most nations, certain class differences remained between party officials, academics, urban workers, and rural farmers. Those who worked for the party tended to receive preferential treatment, while peasants often continued their ancient patterns of life in the country.
During the 1980s, General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev oversaw new liberal reforms known as Perestroika and Glasnost. Like the tsarist reforms before them, however, these changes came too late to save the Soviet Union. It collapsed by 1991, and power transitioned to President Boris Yeltsin.
Modern Russian Society
Modern Russia is a semi-presidential republic headed by a President and Prime Minister. Its legislative bodies are the Federal Assembly and State Duma. From 2000 onward, the nation has been primarily directed by President Vladimir Putin. The federation is divided into 85 smaller units. Its people are majority ethnic Russian, but it is also home to many ethnic minorities. Racial tensions, often carried over from the Soviet Union, persist in some areas. The North Caucasus region in particular has seen decades of conflict and terrorism between the state and Islamic or separatist movements. Since the censorship of the Soviet Union, Russian people have reclaimed much of their older history and cultural heritage. Modern societies continue to emphasize the importance of family and hospitality.
References
Bushkovitch, Paul. A Concise History of Russia. Cambridge University Press. 2012.
Moon, David. The Russian Peasantry 1600-1930: The World the Peasants Made. Routledge. 2014.
Rowland, Daniel Bruce. Medieval Russian Culture. University of California Press. 1984.
“The World Factbook: RUSSIA.” Central Intelligence Agency, Central Intelligence Agency, 29 May 2018, www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/rs.html.
Vernadsky, George. Kievan Russia. Yale University Press. 1973.
Ziegler, Charles. The History of Russia. ABC-CLIO. 2009.
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