Mongolian History
A brief overview of the history of Mongolia and its people.
Origins of the Mongol Empire
Mongolia and the surrounding steppes of Central Asia have long been home to wandering groups of mounted warriors and herdsmen. Mongolians make up one branch of this larger family, similar to Tatar and Turkish peoples. Despite leading similar lifestyles, the steppe nomads developed into distinct cultures based on politics, climate, and language. In Mongolia, the steppe nomads adapted to a cold and dry environment. They moved large herds of livestock from winter to summer pastures while sleeping in round, mobile tents. Extended families formed tribes, which sometimes joined together under the leadership of a khan. These tribes participated in mounted warfare between themselves and other steppe groups.
The tribes of Mongolia grew and organized on the outskirts of the Chinese Empire. In response to Chinese territorial expansion, early nomadic groups formed the Xiongnu Empire in 209 BCE. The exact origins and nature of this state are poorly documented. Either way, they rose in opposition to the settled farmers of China and led raids across its Great Wall. They also adopted elements of Chinese culture like its use of rich textiles. This sustained conflict pushed both sides to advance militarily and politically. Over the centuries, Xiongnu power faded to be replaced by a succession of dynasties. These developed into a number of different steppe cultures, including early Mongolian-speaking tribes led by khans.
Genghis Khan and the Mongol Conquest
In this environment, a young man named Temujin was born around 1162 CE. According to a near-contemporary history of the Mongols, Temujin was the son of a prominent chief who died of poisoning at the hands of rival Tatars. His son survived abandonment and pursuit on the steppes long enough to unite the Mongols. As Genghis Khan, he would lead them on an unprecedented conquest. His armies expanded in all directions, even after his death in 1227. At its height, his Mongol Empire controlled over 9 million square miles of territory.
Mongol military tactics allowed their armies to mobilize quickly and efficiently. Mounted archers engaged enemy forces before withdrawing again, peppering them constantly with arrows. The Mongols were known for their discipline, communication, and strategic use of siege weapons. Cities were generally given the option to surrender peacefully before a battle. Those that complied could be treated fairly. Membership within the empire carried certain benefits, including access to lucrative trade routes and opportunities to rise within the Mongol power structure. Those that did not, however, faced the prospect of utter destruction. In this way, the steppe nomads subjugated diverse kingdoms and empires through a mixture of fear, respect, and mutual benefit.
The Mongol Empire and the Khanates
After the death of Genghis Khan, his heirs began dividing the empire into khanates. The four major khanates remembered today are the Yuan dynasty of China, the Golden Horde or Northern Eurasia, the Ilkhanate of Persia, and the Chagatai Khanate of the Mongolian homeland. These societies each took influences from the people they had conquered. All at least nominally answered to a Great Khan, or khagan, who served as emperor. Over time, Turkish and Tatar forces came to play a major role in the khanates and sometimes assumed control of them.
The Yuan dynasty, ruled most famously by Genghis Khan’s grandson Kublai, was the first foreign dynasty to rule China. It gave the empire access to the wealth and infrastructure of China and the Silk Road. Kublai adopted many Chinese customs alongside his Mongolian heritage and moved his capital to modern Beijing. This led to tensions within the empire, as other khans sought to preserve Mongolian culture at the time of Genghis Khan. In addition, the Yuan emperors faced internal resistance from Chinese citizens who resented their presence.
The Golden Horde of Batu Khan traveled west instead. There, a combination of Mongol and Tatar forces burned the lands of Kievan Rus, conquered much of the Siberian steppes, and threatened medieval Poland. Its rulers gradually adopted Islam and came to represent a multicultural society. As the Russian states to the north reorganized, the Golden Horde fractured into many smaller khanates ruled by mainly Turkish and Tatar leaders. Among their centers of power were Astrakhan and Crimea.
Another grandson, Hulagu Khan, founded the Ilkhanid dynasty centered in Persia. Like the Golden Horde, the Ilkhanids soon converted to Islam. They maintained close ties to both the Golden Horde and the Yuan dynasty, particularly through trade. A great mixing of cultures took place in its courts, spreading and combining ideas and technologies from across the Mongol Empire.
The Chagatai Khanate controlled most of Mongolia and the remaining parts of modern Turkey. It was first held by Chagatai Khan, a son of Genghis Khan. It is perhaps best known for its opposition to the Yuan dynasty, such as Ariq Böke and Kaidu’s long feud with Kublai.
Mongolia Under Chinese Rule
After over a century of domination, the Mongol Empire’s size at last pulled it apart. The great plague that swept through Europe also devastated many Mongol territories. By 1368, the Yuan dynasty had fallen to the Ming Chinese. Elsewhere, the dynasties of Genghis Khan were slowly supplanted by others. Mongol power receded back to the lands that gave birth to its empire, surrounded by enemies on all sides. The ancient conflict with China tilted in China’s favor. Ligdan Khan, the last major pre-modern ruler of independent Mongols, died in 1634. China’s Qing dynasty then assumed control of Mongolia.
Under Chinese authority, the Mongolian people continued to serve primarily as military forces. They also underwent significant social restructuring, particularly among the working classes and farmers. Buddhism grew widespread within the region during this time. Spurred by an ongoing rebellion in China, Mongolia declared independence with the Buddhist leader Bogd Khan at its head in 1911.
Modern Mongolia
The Bogd Khanate sought to create a new Mongolia, but it faced pressure from all sides. Attempts to reunite Outer Mongolia with China’s Inner Mongolia failed. The Chinese then overthrew Bogd Khan in 1919. Five years later, Mongolia had reasserted its independence but fallen under the influence of the Soviet Union. During the Soviet era, Mongolians went through decades of religious, cultural, and historical suppression. They assisted in the fight against Japan in World War II, which caused China to recognize Outer Mongolia as an independent nation.
The Cold War era brought modern industries in the form of mining, timber, and manufacturing. This fed a growing urban workforce centered in Ulaanbaatar. In 1990, as the Soviet Union collapsed, Mongolia separated peacefully and established a semi-presidential republic. Today, the nation is able to both celebrate its past and decide its own future. About 30 percent of its current population continue to lead rural lifestyles, though this number is declining.
References
Curtin, Jeremiah. The Mongols: A History. Little, Brown, and Company. 1907.
Jackson, Peter. The Mongols and the West: 1221-1410. Routledge. 2014.
Lane, George. Daily Life in the Mongol Empire. Greenwood Press. 2006.
Rossabi, Morris. Modern Mongolia: From Khans to Commissars to Capitalists. University of California Press. 2005.
“The World Factbook: Mongolia.” Central Intelligence Agency, Central Intelligence Agency, 1 May 2018, www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/mg.html.
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