Mexican History

Origins of Mexico

The history of Mexico is one of great American empires, colonialism, and a nation founded on the ideal of liberty. In precolumbian times, the region gave rise to a series of civilizations known for their complex societies, writing systems, astronomy, and large urban centers. Its oldest known civilization is that of the Olmecs, who reigned from about 1,200 to 400 BCE. Farming, however, has been practiced in the region for around 7,000 years. The indigenous peoples of Mesoamerica grew the same staple crops common across North America; maize (or corn), beans, and squash, often grown together. The Olmecs occupied what is now southeastern Mexico. Their stone pyramids, religious sacrifices, and even organized sports set the foundations for many cultures to follow.

The city of Teotihuacan rose to prominence about 2,000 years ago before fading by 650 CE. Its ruins are located near modern Mexico City. At its height, Teotihuacan was one of the largest and most complex cities in the world, home to a sophisticated population of urban apartment-dwellers. The political significance of Teotihuacan is unclear. It may have acted as a multicultural hub for the region, originally founded as a religious center. The city's decline is thought to have been caused by periods of drought and subsequent famine.

Teotihuacan was just one of many cities and kingdoms in Mexico at this time. The most well-known of its contemporaries is the Mayan civilization. Mayan city-states controlled much of Central America between 250 and 900 CE. They developed a hieroglyphic written language, allowing their histories to be recorded and later deciphered. The Mayans also had a thorough understanding of astronomy, monumental architecture, calendars, and mathematics. Their cities did not form a unified political state so much as a trade network of culturally linked dynasties. Even after their decline, Mayan cities like Chichen Itza continued to operate up to the Spanish conquest.

The Aztec Empire, most recent of the major civilizations, formed in the early 14th century by migrating Nahua peoples. They came to be known as the Mexica, the origin of Mexico's name today. The Aztec center of power was Tenochtitlan, a large city built at the center of Lake Texcoco. Like Teotihuacan, it soon grew to be one of the largest and most advanced cities in the world. By the 15th century, the Aztecs had risen to dominance in alliance with the cities of Texcoco and Tlacopan.

Spanish Exploration and the Fall of the Aztec Empire

The course of Mexican history shifted suddenly in the 16th century. Unknown to the rulers of the great cities, another branch of civilization had discovered the Americas and were eager to expand. In 1519, Spanish conquistador Hernan Cortes landed on the Yucatan Peninsula. He brought with him 553 soldiers, 16 horses, and 10 cannons. Cortes' unlikely campaign took him to the heart of the Aztec Empire, aided by unhappy rivals and subjects who were often used as slaves and sacrifices. They led him to Tenochtitlan, at the time larger than any city in Spain, with occasional skirmishes along the way. Although outnumbered, the Spanish possessed key advantages in horses and firearms.

There, Cortes captured King Moctezuma II after an initially friendly welcome. They held him captive as a puppet monarch until his citizens rebelled against the foreign occupation. Moctezuma died in the turmoil, and the Spanish razed Tenochtitlan. Its ruins are now part of modern Mexico City. Like other areas of the Americas, the arrival of Europeans also meant the introduction of diseases such as smallpox. Millions died as a result. Those who survived experienced a period of Spanish subjugation, enforced by the killing of their leaders and the dismantling of ancient societies. Many native historical texts were burned at this time.

New Spain and Mexican Independence

The Viceroyalty of New Spain remained a Spanish colony for almost 300 years. It was dominated by an upper class of Spanish officials and their children, who benefited from the encomienda labor system. For the most part, however, existing social structures were preserved as often as possible. Rather than replacing the nobility, the Spanish sought to add another layer to the existing social hierarchy. This helped them maintain control of populations with their own languages, history, and religions. The Spanish newcomers began producing children with indigenous peoples, leading to the mixed ancestry common in Mexico today.

After centuries of Spanish rule, Mexico emerged as a distinct cultural fusion of the Old and New Worlds. In 1810, rebel forces declared independence in response to Napoleon’s conquest of Spain. Without a strong central monarchy to hold them in place, many former Spanish colonies followed suit. Over the next 11 years, Mexicans fought for and at last gained their freedom. They did so with the same ideals of liberty and self-rule that fueled earlier revolutions like that of the United States.

The Republic of Mexico

After a short-lived stretch as an empire under General Agustín de Iturbide, the new nation of Mexico was founded as a republic in 1824. Its early years were marred by political instability, funding issues, and Spanish invasions. Competing parties did not hesitate to use fraud and violence as tools, launching a series of coups against their opponents.

Mexico’s national borders with the United States remained disputed for several decades. Texas declared and won its independence in 1835-1836. Ten years later, the Mexican-American war resulted in the loss of much of Mexico’s remaining land. The territories included the modern states of Arizona, Nevada, New Mexico, Utah, and California. The decades after the war saw a period of reform and modernization. In 1861, a French invasion briefly installed an Austrian Habsburg named Maximilian I as emperor. He held power until 1867, at which point he was executed and the republic restored under Benito Juarez. Juarez acted as a liberalizing force within the country, including limiting the power of the Catholic Church.

Modern Mexico

The 20th century saw both further growth and turmoil in Mexico. In 1876, following Juarez's death, General Porfirio Díaz came to power. Through his seven terms as President of Mexico, he worked to stabilize the nation and modernize its economy. Despite these gains, the corruption of his government eventually sparked the Mexican Revolution of 1910-1920. The subsequent decades were marked by more political instability, assassinations, and internal unrest.

World War II provided new economic opportunities for the troubled nation. The United States relied heavily on Mexican manufacturing to fuel its armed forces, providing a flow of much-needed capital to its citizens. It ushered in a new era of wealth and industrialization, but also political corruption and organized crime. Since then, Mexico has emerged as a major economic power in its own right. More recent Mexican politics have focused on protecting its economy, cracking down on violence, and policing corruption.

References

Aguilar-Moreno, Manuel. Handbook to Life in the Aztec World. Oxford University Press. 2006.

Beezley, William. The Oxford History of Mexico. Oxford University Press. 2010.

Foster, Lynn. Handbook to Life in the Ancient Maya World. Oxford University Press. 2002.

Koch, Peter. The Aztecs, the Conquistadors, and the Making of Mexican Culture. McFarland & Co. 2006.

Long-Solis, Janet and Luis Alberto Vargas. Food Culture in Mexico. Greenwood Press. 2005.

Ruiz, Ramon Eduardo. Triumphs and Tragedy: A History of the Mexican People. W. W. Norton & Company. 1993.

“The World Factbook: Mexico.” Central Intelligence Agency, Central Intelligence Agency, 7 June 2018, www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/mx.html.

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