Spanish History
A short summary of Spanish history.
Origins of Spain
Spanish culture is rooted in the Iberian Peninsula, a southwestern extension of Europe that borders the Mediterranean Sea and Atlantic Ocean. It has been inhabited for around 40,000 years, first by Neanderthals and then by humans moving north from Africa. These early Iberians left behind bones, tools, and rock art, including the famous cave paintings of Altamira. By about 1,000 BCE, these indigenous people began mingling with Phoenician traders. The Phoenicians built trading ports along the Iberian coast, bringing iron and advanced trade with them. They were joined from the north by Celtic migrants, who became the Celtiberians, and Ancient Greek colonists.
Roman, Visigothic, and Islamic Conquests in Hispania
Due to its ties with the Phoenicians, Iberia and its people grew to be close allies with Carthage. They fought against Rome in the Punic Wars but eventually faced defeat and a transfer of power in 201 BCE. Roman rule in Hispania brought new infrastructure and the Catholic faith to Spain. As the empire’s influence faded, its power structure was adopted by Germanic Visigoth rulers. The Visigoths controlled Spain for for about 300 years. By 711 CE, however, they faced a new threat sweeping through the Middle East and North Africa. Muslim armies led by Berber and Arab commanders crossed the Strait of Gibraltar and began conquering northward. They soon reigned over almost the entire Iberian Peninsula, with the exception of a few northern kingdoms.
Al-Andalus and the Reconquista
Spain’s Islamic period, or Al-Andalus, flourished as a multicultural society connected to the Muslim trade network. It came under constant attack from the Christians of Europe, fueled by the religious zeal of the Crusades.The Kingdom of Castile expanded from 1230 on. It gave rise to the two most formative monarchs in Spanish history; the married pair of King Ferdinand II and Queen Isabella I. They launched the Spanish Inquisition in 1478 and pressed the Reconquista to its end. Their military campaign came to a close in 1492, when Ferdinand and Isabella accepted the surrender of the last Muslim ruler in Granada.
The New World and the Spanish Empire
That same year, the monarchs funded an expedition led by Genoan navigator Christopher Columbus. Columbus sought a new trade route to China and the Indies. Instead, he found the Americas, previously almost unknown to Europe. The Spanish carried numerous advantages with them to the New World. Not least of these was disease. Old World illnesses like smallpox and influenza ripped across the Americas, often far in advance of Spanish troops. Small parties of armored and mounted conquistadors, backed by artillery, led expeditions in search of gold, land, and converts. Men like Hernan Cortes and Francisco Pizarro are now remembered for toppling the powerful Aztec and Inca Empires.
The Spanish colonies in the Americas fueled a growing empire and its powerful navy. At home, the Inquisition rooted out religious dissent. Abroad, Catholic Orders converted indigenous populations while Spanish officials pushed them into forced labor. Despite its rapid expansion in the 16th century, however, the Spanish Empire began to decline by the 17th. The nation, heavily reliant on tradition, in many ways failed to modernize alongside the rest of Europe. Napoleon Bonaparte, formerly a Spanish ally, betrayed the monarchy in 1808. He deposed its ruler, Ferdinand VII, and installed his older brother Joseph in his place. This triggered a rash of independence wars in the Americas and other Spanish colonies. Ferdinand VII regained his throne in 1813, but the damage was already done.
Spain in the Modern Era
The 19th century as a whole was marked by turmoil and stagnation in Spain. Reform movements met consistent pushback from the monarchy and Catholic Church. Meanwhile, the common people of Spain faced increasing poverty and landlessness. The First Republic of Spain interrupted the Bourbon dynasty briefly between 1873 and 1874. The Second Spanish Republic emerged in 1931 and lasted 8 years. The Republic brought liberal reforms at a time when the rest of Europe leaned toward authoritarianism and fascism. It encountered stiff resistance from conservative forces. In 1936, General Francisco Franco launched a military coup against the reigning government. The Spanish Civil War that followed killed around 300,000 people and ended with Franco in power.
Franco’s reign in Spain lasted until his death in 1975. Francoist Spain remained nominally neutral in World War II, despite assistance from Italy and Nazi Germany in the Civil War. While his government limited the rights of its citizens, sometimes brutally, Franco oversaw the modernization and growth of modern Spain’s economy. He was succeeded by the restored Bourbon monarchy under King Juan Carlos I. Since this time, Spain has gradually adopted closer relations with the rest of Europe. The financial crisis of 2007-2008 hit the nation especially hard, leading to austerity measures and a renewed interest in socialist policies.
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References
Gies, David T. The Cambridge Companion to Modern Spanish Culture. Cambridge University Press. 1999.
Payne, Stanley G. Spanish Catholicism: An Historical Overview. University of Wisconsin Press. 1984.
Phillips, William and Carla Rahn Phillips. A Concise History of Spain. Cambridge University Press. 2016.
“The World Factbook: Spain.” Central Intelligence Agency, Central Intelligence Agency, 12 July 2018, www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/sp.html.
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