Chinese Society
An overview of the social structures and societies of Chinese history.
Confucianism and Dynastic China
Traditional Chinese society followed a Confucian hierarchical model. According to Confucianism, a strong, stable society rests on the virtues of its people. It emphasizes the traits of etiquette, honesty, kindness, generosity, and filial piety. Filial piety, or respect for one’s living and deceased ancestors, forms the heart of Confucian philosophy and worship. Children are raised to respect their parents’ authority and care for them in old age. Deceased relatives are remembered through ancestral tablets, where their families leave offerings and prayers. Fathers head the family, while women are expected to remain within the home and care for children.
This familial structure emphasizing respectful hierarchies also applied to wider Chinese society. A person’s ethical value was largely determined by his or her ability to conform to specific roles within society. Boys and girls were taught to be dutiful, pious children and siblings to help them grow into model husbands and wives. This harmonious network of relationships extended from the poorest peasant child to the emperor, who acted as a supreme father figure to his subjects. From the Zhou dynasty on, each emperor claimed a Mandate of Heaven to legitimize his rule. So long as the nation, its ruler, and its people acted in conformity with nature, the heavens would ensure a peaceful, prosperous reign. This encouraged rulers to prioritize the welfare of their subjects.
The imperial Chinese state adopted Confucianism during the Han dynasty (206 BCE-220 CE). Over hundreds of years, this model was gradually refined into a powerful monarchy run by civil servants. These scholar-bureaucrats, or mandarins, earned their positions through state exams, which tested their knowledge in subjects like literature and philosophy. Men of most ranks could attempt these exams and thereby better their social standing. Merchants and other less respected social classes, such as butchers and entertainers, were generally not allowed to sit for the exams.
The Silk Road and External Rule in China
This social structure, with gradual changes, fostered a stable imperial system that survived for about 2,000 years. A few notable rulers stretched Confucian customs, including Wu Zetian. Reigning from 690 to 705, Wu Zetian rose from imperial concubine to the first female emperor of China. Her reign oversaw an expansion of women’s rights, public education, trade along the Silk Road, and the use of imperial exams to appoint both military and civil officials. The Yuan dynasty, founded by Kublai Khan of the Mongol Empire, marked the first period of foreign rule in China. Despite this, Kublai for the most part adopted Chinese customs. The Yuan government temporarily ended civil exams, instead favoring non-Chinese administrators.
The next period of non-Han leadership came in 1636 with the Manchurian Qing dynasty. The Manchus are an ethnic minority in China who unified to overthrow the previous Ming dynasty. They shared some cultural elements with the Mongols to their west but were careful to mollify their majority Han Chinese subjects. The Qing dynasty was plagued by European interference, which gradually eroded the cohesion of Chinese society. Christian missionaries, opium, and European control of Chinese industry all stressed the once unified empire. Wars led to famines and revolts. The Qing monarchy implemented the Self-Strengthening Movement in the late 19th century, but their efforts proved too little and too late. In 1912, the last child emperor of China, Puyi, was forced to abdicate.
Social Structures of Modern China
The loss of the monarchy left the People’s Republic of China vulnerable to invasion. An increasingly powerful Japan seized this opportunity and claimed Manchuria for its own. After World War II, China reunified following a civil war to determine future leadership. The Communist Party of China emerged victorious, though a separate Republic of China continues to claim legitimacy in Taiwan.
Under Mao Zedong and subsequent leaders, China developed into a socialist state that has not forgotten its earlier Confucian norms. In recent decades, the nation has opened up its markets to become one of the most powerful economic forces in the world. This has led to the growth of a large middle class, estimated to contain over 400 million people. Rural populations, however, continues to survive primarily through agriculture and manual labor. While women enjoy greater freedoms in China today, those who pursue careers may still face difficulties stemming from older Confucian beliefs.
References
Babones, Salvatore. “China's Middle Class Is Pulling Up the Ladder Behind Itself.” Foreign Policy, Foreign Policy, 1 Feb. 2018, foreignpolicy.com/2018/02/01/chinas-middle-class-is-pulling-up-the-ladder-behind-itself/.
Gernet, Jacques. A History of Chinese Civilization. Cambridge University Press. 1996.
Gunde, Richard. Culture and Customs of China. Greenwood Publishing. 2002.
Newman, Jacqueline. Food Culture in China. Greenwood Publishing. 2004.
O'Brien, Fergal. “China to Overtake U.S. Economy by 2032 as Asian Might Builds.” Bloomberg, Bloomberg, 26 Dec. 2017, www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-12-26/china-to-overtake-u-s-economy-by-2032-as-asian-might-builds.
“The World Factbook: CHINA.” Central Intelligence Agency, Central Intelligence Agency, 12 July 2018, www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ch.html.
Von Glahn, Richard. An Economic History of China. Cambridge University Press. 2016.
About TOTA
TOTA.world provides cultural information and sharing across the world to help you explore your Family’s Cultural History and create deep connections with the lives and cultures of your ancestors.
